Pathogenic challenge reveals immune trade-off in mussels exposed to reduced seawater pH and increased temperature

Mussels tolerant to seawater pH's that are projected to occur by 2300 due to ocean acidification.•Exposure to pH 6.50 reduced mussel immune response, yet in the absence of a pathogen.•Subsequent pathogenic challenge led to a reversal of immune suppression at pH 6.50.•Study highlights the importance of undertaking multiple stressor exposures.•Shows a need to consider physiological trade-offs and measure responses functionally

Phenotypic variation in shell form in the intertidal acorn barnacle Chthamalus montagui: distribution, response to predators and life history trade-offs.

The acorn barnacle Chthamalus montagui can present strong variation in shell morphology, ranging from flat conic to a highly bent form, caused by a substantial overgrowth of the rostrum plate. Shell shape distribution was investigated between January and May 2004 from geographical to microhabitat spatial scales along the western coast of Britain. Populations studied in the north (Scotland and Isle of Man) showed a higher degree of shell variation compared to those in the south (Wales and south-west England). In the north, C. montagui living at lower tidal levels and in proximity to the predatory dogwhelk, Nucella lapillus, were more bent in profile. Laboratory experiments were conducted to examine behavioural responses, and vulnerability of bent and conic barnacles to predation by N. lapillus. Dogwhelks did not attack one morphotype more than the other, but only 15 % of attacks on bent forms were successful compared to 75 % in conic forms. Dogwhelk effluent reduced the time spent feeding by C. montagui (11 %), but there was no significant difference between conic and bent forms. Examination of barnacle morphology indicated a trade-off in investment in shell structure and feeding appendages associated with being bent, but none with egg or somatic tissue mass. These results are consistent with C. montagui showing an induced defence comparable to that found in its congeners Chthamalus anisopoma and Chthamalus fissus on the Pacific coast of North America, but further work to demonstrate inducibility is required.

Why marine phytoplankton calcify

Calcifying marine phytoplankton - coccolithophores - are some of the most successful yet enigmatic organisms in the ocean, and are at risk from global change. In order to better understand how they will be affected we need to know 'why' coccolithophores calcify. Here we review coccolithophorid evolutionary history, cell biology, and insights from recent experiments to provide a critical assessment of the costs and benefits of calcification. We conclude that calcification has high energy demands, and that coccolithophores might have calcified initially to reduce grazing pressure, but that additional benefits such as protection from photo-damage and viral-bacterial attack further explain their high diversity and broad spectrum ecology. The cost-versus-benefit of these traits is illustrated by novel ecosystem modeling, although conclusive observations are still limited. In the future ocean, the trade-off between changing ecological and physiological costs of calcification and their benefits will ultimately decide how this important group is affected by ocean acidification and global warming.

Why marine phytoplankton calcify

Calcifying marine phytoplankton - coccolithophores - are some of the most successful yet enigmatic organisms in the ocean, and are at risk from global change. In order to better understand how they will be affected we need to know 'why' coccolithophores calcify. Here we review coccolithophorid evolutionary history, cell biology, and insights from recent experiments to provide a critical assessment of the costs and benefits of calcification. We conclude that calcification has high energy demands, and that coccolithophores might have calcified initially to reduce grazing pressure, but that additional benefits such as protection from photo-damage and viral-bacterial attack further explain their high diversity and broad spectrum ecology. The cost-versus-benefit of these traits is illustrated by novel ecosystem modeling, although conclusive observations are still limited. In the future ocean, the trade-off between changing ecological and physiological costs of calcification and their benefits will ultimately decide how this important group is affected by ocean acidification and global warming.

Environmental selection and resource allocation determine spatial patterns in picophytoplankton cell size

Here we describe a new trait-based model for cellular resource allocation that we use to investigate the relative importance of different drivers for small cell size in phytoplankton. Using the model, we show that increased investment in nonscalable structural components with decreasing cell size leads to a trade-off between cell size, nutrient and light affinity, and growth rate. Within the most extreme nutrient-limited, stratified environments, resource competition theory then predicts a trend toward larger minimum cell size with increasing depth. We demonstrate that this explains observed trends using a marine ecosystem model that represents selection and adaptation of a diverse community defined by traits for cell size and subcellular resource allocation. This framework for linking cellular physiology to environmental selection can be used to investigate the adaptive response of the marine microbial community to environmental conditions and the adaptive value of variations in cellular physiology.

Interactions between multiple large macrofauna species and nematode communities — Mechanisms for indirect impacts of trawling disturbance

Highlights •We exposed meiofauna to 7 different large macrofauna species at high and low densities. •Macrofauna presence altered nematode community structure and reduced their abundance. •Macrofauna species had similar effects by reducing the few dominant nematode species. •Meio–macrofauna resource competition and spatial segregation are the main drivers. •Trawling effects on macrofauna affect nematode communities indirectly. Diverse assemblages of infauna in sediments provide important physical and biogeochemical services, but are under increasing pressure by anthropogenic activities, such as benthic trawling. It is known that trawling disturbance has a substantial effect on the larger benthic fauna, with reductions in density and diversity, and changes in community structure, benthic biomass, production, and bioturbation and biogeochemical processes. Largely unknown, however, are the mechanisms by which the trawling impacts on the large benthic macro- and megafauna may influence the smaller meiofauna. To investigate this, a mesocosm experiment was conducted whereby benthic nematode communities from a non-trawled area were exposed to three different densities (absent, low, normal) of 7 large (> 10 mm) naturally co-occurring, bioturbating species which are potentially vulnerable to trawling disturbance. The results showed that total abundances of nematodes were lower if these large macrofauna species were present, but no clear nematode abundance effects could be assigned to the macrofauna density differences. Nematode community structure changed in response to macrofauna presence and density, mainly as a result of the reduced abundance of a few dominant nematode species. Any detectable effects seemed similar for nearly all macrofauna species treatments, supporting the idea that there may be a general indirect, macrofauna-mediated trawling impact on nematode communities. Explanations for these results may be, firstly, competition for food resources, resulting in spatial segregation of the meio- and macrobenthic components. Secondly, different densities of large macrofauna organisms may affect the nematode community structure through different intensities of bioturbatory disturbance or resource competition. These results suggest that removal or reduced densities of larger macrofauna species as a result of trawling disturbance may lead to increased nematode abundance and hints at the validity of interference competition between large macrofauna organisms and the smaller meiofauna, and the energy equivalence hypothesis, where a trade-off is observed between groups of organisms that are dependent on a common source of energy.

Mechanisms shaping size structure and functional diversity of phytoplankton communities in the ocean

The factors regulating phytoplankton community composition play a crucial role in structuring aquatic food webs. However, consensus is still lacking about the mechanisms underlying the observed biogeographical differences in cell size composition of phytoplankton communities. Here we use a trait-based model to disentangle these mechanisms in two contrasting regions of the Atlantic Ocean. In our model, the phytoplankton community can self-assemble based on a trade-off emerging from relationships between cell size and (1) nutrient uptake, (2) zooplankton grazing, and (3) phytoplankton sinking. Grazing 'pushes' the community towards larger cell sizes, whereas nutrient uptake and sinking 'pull' the community towards smaller cell sizes. We find that the stable environmental conditions of the tropics strongly balance these forces leading to persistently small cell sizes and reduced size diversity. In contrast, the seasonality of the temperate region causes the community to regularly reorganize via shifts in species composition and to exhibit, on average, bigger cell sizes and higher size diversity than in the tropics. Our results raise the importance of environmental variability as a key structuring mechanism of plankton communities in the ocean and call for a reassessment of the current understanding of phytoplankton diversity patterns across latitudinal gradients.

Trait-based representation of diatom functional diversity in a plankton functional type model of the eutrophied southern North Sea

We introduce a trait-based description of diatom functional diversity to an existing plankton functional type (PFT) model, implemented for the eutrophied coastal ecosystem in the Southern Bight of the North Sea. The trait-based description represents a continuum of diatom species, each characterized by a distinct cell volume, and includes size dependence of four diatom traits: the maximum growth rate, the half-saturation constants for nutrient uptake, the photosynthetic efficiency, and the relative affinity of copepods for diatoms. Through competition under seasonally varying forcing, the fitness of each diatom varies throughout time, and the outcome of competition results in a changing community structure. The predicted seasonal change in mean cell volume of the community is supported by field observations: smaller diatoms, which are more competitive in terms of resource acquisition, prevail during the first spring bloom, whereas the summer bloom is dominated by larger species which better resist grazing. The size-based model is used to determine the ecological niche of diatoms in the area and identifies a range of viable sizes that matches observations. The general trade-off between small, competitive diatoms and large, grazing-resistant species is a convenient framework to study patterns in diatom functional diversity. PFT models and trait-based approaches constitute promising complementary tools to study community structure in marine ecosystems.