Does an incremental filling technique reduce polymerization shrinkage stresses

It is widely accepted that volumetric contraction and solidification during the polymerization process of restorative composites in combination with bonding to the hard tissue result in stress transfer and inward deformation of the cavity walls of the restored tooth. Deformation of the walls decreases the size of the cavity during the filling process. This fact has a profound influence on the assumption-raised and discussed in this paper-that an incremental filling technique reduces the stress effect of composite shrinkage on the tooth. Developing stress fields for different incremental filling techniques are simulated in a numerical analysis. The analysis shows that, in a restoration with a well-established bond to the tooth-as is generally desired-incremental filling techniques increase the deformation of the restored tooth. The increase is caused by the incremental deformation of the preparation, which effectively decreases the total amount of composite needed to fill the cavity. This leads to a higher-stressed tooth-composite structure. The study also shows that the assessment of intercuspal distance measurements as well as simplifications based on generalization of the shrinkage stress state cannot be sufficient to characterize the effect of polymerization shrinkage in a tooth-restoration complex. Incremental filling methods may need to be retained for reasons such as densification, adaptation, thoroughness of cure, and bond formation. However, it is very difficult to prove that incrementalization needs to be retained because of the abatement of shrinkage effects.

Temporal representation of state transitions

This paper describes a knowledge-based temporal representation of state transitions for industrial real-time systems. To allow expression of uncertainty, we shall define fluents as disjuncts of positive/negative time-varying properties. A state of the world is represented as a collection of fluents, which is usually incomplete in the sense that neither the positive form nor the negative form of some properties can be implied from it. The world under consideration is assumed to persist in a given state until an action(s) takes place to effect a transition of it into another state, where actions may either be instantaneous or durative. High-level causal laws are characterized in terms of relationships between actions and the involved world states. An effect completion axiom is imposed on each causal law to guarantee that all the fluents that can be affected by the performance of the corresponding action are governed. This completion requirement is practical for most industrial real-time applications and in fact provides a simple and effective treatment to the so-called frame problem.

Effect of adding 0.3wt% Ni into the Sn-0.7wt% Cu solder - Part II: Growth of intermetallic layer with Cu during wetting and aging

The growth behavior of intermetallic layer with or without adding 0.3 wt% Ni into the Sn-0.7Cu solder was studied during the wetting reaction on Cu-substrate and thereafter in solid-state aging condition. The Cu-solder reaction couple was prepared at 255, 275 and 295 °C for 10 s. The samples reacted at 255 °C were then isothermally aged for 2-14 days at 150 °C. The reaction species formed for the Sn-0.7Cu/Cu and Sn-0.7Cu-0.3Ni/Cu soldering systems were Cu6Sn5 and (CuNi)6Sn5, respectively. The thickness of the intermetallic compounds formed at the solder/Cu interfaces and also in the bulk of both solders increased with the increase of reaction temperature. It was found that Ni-containing Sn-0.7Cu solder exhibited lower growth of intermetallic layer during wetting and in the early stage of aging and eventually exceeded the intermetallic layer thickness of Sn-0.7Cu/Cu soldering system after 6 days of aging. As the aging time proceeds, a non-uniform intermetallic layer growth tendency was observed for the case of Sn-0.7Cu-0.3Ni solder. The growth behavior of intermetallic layer during aging for both solders followed the diffusion-controlled mechanism. The intermetallic layer growth rate constants for Sn-0.7Cu and Sn-0.7Cu-0.3Ni solders were calculated as 1.41 × 10-17 and 1.89 × 10-17 m2/s, respectively which indicated that adding 0.3 wt% Ni with Sn-0.7Cu solder contributed to the higher growth of intermetallic layer during aging. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effect of current stressing on the reliability of 63Sn37Pb solder joints

The effect of current stressing on the reliability of 63Sn37Pb solder joints with Cu pads was investigated at temperatures of −5 °C and 125 °C up to 600 h. The samples were stressed with 3 A current (6.0 × 102 A/cm2 in the solder joint with diameter of 800 μm and 1.7 × 104 A/cm2 in the Cu trace with cross section area of 35 × 500 μm). The temperatures of the samples and interfacial reaction within the solder joints were examined. The microstructural change of the solder joints aged at 125 °C without current flow was also evaluated for comparison. It was confirmed that the current flow could cause the temperature of solder joints to rise rapidly and remarkably due to accumulation of massive Joule heat generated by the Cu trace. The solder joints stressed at 125 °C with 3 A current had an extensive growth of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn intermetallic compounds (IMC) at both top and bottom solder-to-pad interfaces. It was a direct result of accelerated aging rather than an electromigration or thermomigration effect in this experiment. The kinetic is believed to be bulk diffusion controlled solid-state reaction, irrespective of the electron flow direction. When stressed at −5 °C with 3 A current, no significant change in microstructure and composition of the solder joints had occurred due to a very low diffusivity of the atoms as most Joule heat was eliminated at low temperature. The IMC evolution of the solder joints aged at 125 °C exhibited a subparabolic growth behavior, which is presumed to be a combined mechanism of grain boundary diffusion and bulk diffusion. This is mainly ascribed to the retardant effect against the diffusion course by the sufficiently thick IMC layer that was initially formed during the reflow soldering.

Modelling the tilt-casting process for the tranquil filling of titanium alloy turbine blades

The tilt-casting method is used to achieve tranquil filling of gamma-TiAl turbine blades. The reactive alloy is melted in a cold crucible using an induction coil and then the complete crucible-mould- running system assembly is rotated through 180degrees to transfer the metal into the mould. The induction current is ramped down gradually as the rotation starts and the mould is preheated to maintain superheat. The liquid metal then enters the mould and the gas within it (argon) escapes through the inlet aperture and through auxiliary vents. Solidification starts as soon the metal enters the mould and it is important to account for this effect to predict and prevent misruns. The rotation rate has to be controlled carefully to allow sufficient time for gas evacuation, but at the same time preserve superheat. This 3-phase system is modelled using the FV method, with a fast implicit numerical scheme used to capture the transient liquid free surface. The enthalpy method is used to model solidification and predict defects such as trapped bubbles, macro-porosity or surface connected porosity. Modeling is used to support an experimental program for the development of a production method for gamma-TiAl blades, with a target length of 40cm. The experiments provide validation for the model and the model in turn optimizes the tilt-casting process. The work is part of the EU project IMPRESS.

Influence of a fed or fasted state on the s-IgA response to prolonged cycling in active men and women

This study investigated the effect of a fed or fasted state on the salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) response to prolonged cycling. Using a randomized, crossover design, 16 active adults (8 men and 8 women) performed 2 hr of cycling on a stationary ergometer at 65% of maximal oxygen uptake on 1 occasion after an overnight fast (FAST) and on another occasion 2 hr after consuming a 2.2-MJ high-carbohydrate meal (FED). Timed, unstimulated whole saliva samples were collected immediately before ingestion of the meal, immediately preexercise, 5 min before cessation of exercise, immediately postexercise, and 1 hr postexercise. The samples were analyzed for s-IgA concentration, osmolality, and cortisol, and saliva flow rates were determined to calculate s-IgA secretion rate. Saliva flow rate decreased by 50% during exercise (p < .05), and s-IgA concentration increased by 42% (p < .05), but s-IgA secretion rate remained unchanged. There was a 37% reduction in s-IgA:osmolality postexercise (p < .05), and salivary cortisol increased by 68% (p < .05). There was no effect of FED vs. FAST on these salivary responses. The s-IgA concentration, secretion rate, and osmolality were found to be significantly lower in women than in men throughout the exercise protocol (p < .05); however, there was no difference between genders in saliva flow rate, s-IgA:osmolality ratio, or cortisol. These data demonstrate that a fed or fasted state 2 hr before exercise does not influence resting s-IgA or the response to prolonged cycling. Furthermore, these results show lower levels of s-IgA and osmolality in women than in men at rest.

Investigation of wall-slip effect on paste release characteristic in flip-chip stencil printing process

As the trend toward further miniaturisation of pocket and handheld consumer electronic products continues apace, the requirements for even smaller solder joints will continue. With further reductions in the size of solder joints, the reliability of solder joints will become more and more critical to the long-term performance of electronic products. Solder joints play an important role in electronics packaging, serving both as electrical interconnections between the components and the board, and as mechanical support for components. With world-wide legislation for the removal/reduction of lead and other hazardous materials from electrical and electronic products, the electronics manufacturing industry has been faced with an urgent search for new lead-free solder alloy systems and other solder alternatives. In order to achieve high volume, low cost production, the stencil printing process and subsequent wafer bumping of solder paste has become indispensable. There is wide agreement in industry that the paste printing process accounts for the majority of assembly defects, and most defects originate from poor understanding of the effect of printing process parameters on printing performance. The printing of ICAs and lead-free solder pastes through the very small stencil apertures required for flip chip applications was expected to result in increased stencil clogging and incomplete transfer of paste to the printed circuit pads. Paste release from the stencil apertures is dependent on the interaction between the solder paste, surface pad and aperture wall; including its shape. At these very narrow aperture sizes the paste rheology becomes crucial for consistent paste withdrawal because for smaller paste volumes surface tension effects become dominant over viscous flow. Successful aperture filling and release will greatly depend on the rheology of the paste material. Wall-slip plays an important role in characterising the flow behaviour of solder paste materials. The wall- slip arises due to the various attractive and repulsive forces acting between the solder particles and the walls of the measuring geometry. These interactions could lead to the presence of a thin solvent layer adjacent to the wall, which gives rise to slippage. The wall slip effect can play an important role in ensuring successful paste release after the printing process. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the paste microstructure on slip formation for the paste materials (lead-free solder paste and isotropic conductive adhesives). The effect of surface roughness on the paste viscosity was investigated. It was also found that altering the surface roughness of the parallel plate measuring geometry did not significantly eliminate wall slip as was expected. But results indicate that the use of a relatively rough surface helps to increase paste adhesion to the plates, inducing structural breakdown of the paste. Most importantly, the study also demonstrated on how the wall slip formation in the paste material could be utilised for understanding of the paste microstructure and its flow behaviour