Fate of products of degradation processes: consequences for climatic change.

The end products of atmospheric degradation are not only CO2 and H2O but also sulfate and nitrate depending on the chemical composition of the substances which are subject to degradation processes. Atmospheric degradation has thus a direct influence on the radiative balance of the earth not only due to formation of greenhouse gases but also of aerosols. Aerosols of a diameter of 0.1 to 2 micrometer, reflect short wave sunlight very efficiently leading to a radiative forcing which is estimated to be about -0.8 watt per m2 by IPCC. Aerosols also influence the radiative balance by way of cloud formation. If more aerosols are present, clouds are formed with more and smaller droplets and these clouds have a higher albedo and are more stable compared to clouds with larger droplets. Not only sulfate, but also nitrate and polar organic compounds, formed as intermediates in degradation processes, contribute to this direct and indirect aerosol effect. Estimates for the Netherlands indicate a direct effect of -4 watt m-2 and an indirect effect of as large as -5 watt m-2. About one third is caused by sulfates, one third by nitrates and last third by polar organic compounds. This large radiative forcing is obviously non-uniform and depends on local conditions.

Later Life Consequences of Developmental Mitochondrial DNA Damage in C. elegans

Mitochondria are responsible for producing the vast majority of cellular ATP, and are therefore critical to organismal health [1]. They contain thir own genomes (mtDNA) which encode 13 proteins that are all subunits of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) and are essential for oxidative phosphorylation [2]. mtDNA is present in multiple copies per cell, usually between 103 and 104 , though this number is reduced during certain developmental stages [3, 4]. The health of the mitochondrial genome is also important to the health of the organism, as mutations in mtDNA lead to human diseases that collectively affect approximately 1 in 4000 people [5, 6]. mtDNA is more susceptible than nuclear DNA (nucDNA) to damage by many environmental pollutants, for reasons including the absence of Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) in the mitochondria [7]. NER is a highly functionally conserved DNA repair pathway that removes bulky, helix distorting lesions such as those caused by ultraviolet C (UVC) radiation and also many environmental toxicants, including benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) [8]. While these lesions cannot be repaired, they are slowly removed through a process that involves mitochondrial dynamics and autophagy [9, 10]. However, when present during development in C. elegans, this damage reduces mtDNA copy number and ATP levels [11]. We hypothesize that this damage, when present during development, will result in mitochondrial dysfunction and increase the potential for adverse outcomes later in life.

To test this hypothesis, 1st larval stage (L1) C. elegans are exposed to 3 doses of 7.5J/m2 ultraviolet C radiation 24 hours apart, leading to the accumulation of mtDNA damage [9, 11]. After exposure, many mitochondrial endpoints are assessed at multiple time points later in life. mtDNA and nucDNA damage levels and genome copy numbers are measured via QPCR and real-time PCR , respectively, every 2 day for 10 days. Steady state ATP levels are measured via luciferase expressing reporter strains and traditional ATP extraction methods. Oxygen consumption is measured using a Seahorse XFe24 extra cellular flux analyzer. Gene expression changes are measured via real time PCR and targeted metabolomics via LC-MS are used to investigate changes in organic acid, amino acid and acyl-carnitine levels. Lastly, nematode developmental delay is assessed as growth, and measured via imaging and COPAS biosort.

I have found that despite being removed, UVC induced mtDNA damage during development leads to persistent deficits in energy production later in life. mtDNA copy number is permanently reduced, as are ATP levels, though oxygen consumption is increased, indicating inefficient or uncoupled respiration. Metabolomic data and mutant sensitivity indicate a role for NADPH and oxidative stress in these results, and exposed nematodes are more sensitive to the mitochondrial poison rotenone later in life. These results fit with the developmental origin of health and disease hypothesis, and show the potential for environmental exposures to have lasting effects on mitochondrial function.

Lastly, we are currently working to investigate the potential for irreparable mtDNA lesions to drive mutagenesis in mtDNA. Mutations in mtDNA lead to a wide range of diseases, yet we currently do not understand the environmental component of what causes them. In vitro evidence suggests that UVC induced thymine dimers can be mutagenic [12]. We are using duplex sequencing of C. elegans mtDNA to determine mutation rates in nematodes exposed to our serial UVC protocol. Furthermore, by including mutant strains deficient in mitochondrial fission and mitophagy, we hope to determine if deficiencies in these processes will further increase mtDNA mutation rates, as they are implicated in human diseases.

Later Life Consequences of Subteratogenic Exposure to a Complex PAH Mixture in the Atlantic Killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus)

Subteratogenic and other low-level chronic exposures to toxicant mixtures are an understudied threat to environmental and human health. It is especially important to understand the effects of these exposures for contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) a large group of more than 100 individual compounds, which are important environmental (including aquatic) contaminants. Aquatic sediments constitute a major sink for hydrophobic pollutants, and studies show PAHs can persist in sediments over time. Furthermore, estuarine systems (namely breeding grounds) are of particular concern, as they are highly impacted by a wide variety of pollutants, and estuarine fishes are often exposed to some of the highest levels of contaminants of any vertebrate taxon. Acute embryonic exposure to PAHs results in cardiac teratogenesis in fish, and early life exposure to certain individual PAHs and PAH mixtures cause heart alterations with decreased swimming capacity in adult fish. Consequently, the heart and cardiorespiratory system are thought to be targets of PAH mixture exposure. While many studies have investigated acute, teratogenic PAH exposures, few studies have longitudinally examined the impacts of subtle, subteratogenic PAH mixture exposures, which are arguably more broadly applicable to environmental contamination scenarios. The goal of this dissertation was to highlight the later-life consequences of early-life exposure to subteratogenic concentrations of a complex, environmentally relevant PAH mixture.

A unique population of Fundulus heteroclitus (the Atlantic killifish or mummichog, hereafter referred to as killifish), has adapted to creosote-based polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found at the Atlantic Wood Industries (AW) Superfund site in the southern branch of the Elizabeth River, VA, USA. This killifish population survives in a site heavily contaminated with a mixture of PAHs from former creosote operations. They have developed resistance to the acute toxicity and teratogenic effects caused by the mixture of PAHs in sediment from the site. The primary goal of this dissertation was to compare and contrast later-life outcomes of early-life, subteratogenic PAH mixture exposure in both the Atlantic Wood killifish (AW) and a naïve reference population of killifish from King’s Creek (KC; a relatively uncontaminated tributary of the Severn River, VA). Killifish from both populations were exposed to subteratogenic concentrations of a complex PAH-sediment extract, Elizabeth River Sediment Extract (ERSE), made by collecting sediment from the AW site. Fish were reared over a 5-month period in the laboratory, during which they were examined for a variety of molecular, physiological and behavioral responses.

The central aims of my dissertation were to determine alterations to embryonic gene expression, larval swimming activity, adult behavior, heart structure, enzyme activity, and swimming/cardiorespiratory performance following subteratogenic exposure to ERSE. I hypothesized that subteratogenic exposure to ERSE would impair cardiac ontogenic processes in a way that would be detectable via gene expression in embryos, and that the misregulation of cardiac genes would help to explain activity changes, behavioral deficits, and later-life swimming deficiencies. I also hypothesized that fish heart structure would be altered. In addition, I hypothesized that the AW killifish population would be resistant to developmental exposures and perform normally in later life challenges. To investigate these hypotheses, a series of experiments were carried out in PAH-adapted killifish from Elizabeth River and in reference killifish. As an ancillary project to the primary aims of the dissertation, I examined the toxicity of weaker aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonists in combination with fluoranthene (FL), an inhibitor of cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1). This side project was conducted in both Danio rerio (zebrafish) and the KC and AW killifish.

Embryonic gene expression was measured in both killifish populations over an ERSE dose response with multiple time points (12, 24, 48, and 144 hours post exposure). Genes known to play critical roles in cardiac structure/development, cardiac function, and angiogenesis were elevated, indicating cardiac damage and activation of cardiovascular repair mechanisms. These data helped to inform later-life swimming performance and cardiac histology studies. Behavior was assessed during light and dark cycles in larvae of both populations following developmental exposure to ERSE. While KC killifish showed activity differences following exposure, AW killifish showed no significant changes even at concentrations that would cause overt cardiac toxicity in KC killifish. Juvenile behavior experiments demonstrated hyperactivity following ERSE exposure in KC killifish, but no significant behavioral changes in AW killifish. Adult swimming performance via prolonged critical swimming capacity (Ucrit) demonstrated performance costs in the AW killifish. Furthermore, swimming performance decline was observed in KC killifish following exposure to increasing dilutions of ERSE. Lastly, cardiac histology suggested that early-life exposure to ERSE could result in cardiac structural alteration and extravasation of blood into the pericardial cavity.

Responses to AHR agonists resulted in a ranking of relative potency for agonists, and determined which agonists, when combined with FL, caused cardiac teratogenesis. These experiments showed interesting species differences for zebrafish and killifish. To probe mechanisms responsible for cardiotoxicity, a CYP1A-morpholino and a AHR2-morpholino were used to mimic FL effects or attempt to rescue cardiac deformities respectively. Findings suggested that the cardiac toxicity elicited by weak agonist + FL exposure was likely driven by AHR-independent mechanisms. These studies stand in contrast to previous research from our lab showing that moderate AHR agonist + FL caused cardiac toxicity that can be partially rescued by AHR-morpholino knockdown.

My findings will form better characterization of mechanisms of PAH toxicity, and advance our understanding of how subteratogenic mixtures of PAHs exert their toxic action in naïve killifish. Furthermore, these studies will provide a framework for investigating how subteratogenic exposures to PAH mixtures can impact aquatic organismal health and performance. Most importantly, these experiments have the potential to help inform risk assessment in fish, mammals, and potentially humans. Ultimately, this research will help protect populations exposed to subtle PAH-contamination.