Observed Social Problem Solving and Friendship Quality in Children with a Traumatic Brain Injury

Children who have experienced a traumatic brain injury (TBI) are at risk for a variety of maladaptive cognitive, behavioral and social outcomes (Yeates et al., 2007). Research involving the social problem solving (SPS) abilities of children with TBI indicates a preference for lower level strategies when compared to children who have experienced an orthopedic injury (OI; Hanten et al., 2008, 2011). Research on SPS in non-injured populations has highlighted the significance of the identity of the social partner (Rubin et al., 2006). Within the pediatric TBI literature few studies have utilized friends as the social partner in SPS contexts, and fewer have used in-vivo SPS assessments. The current study aimed to build on existing research of SPS in children with TBI by utilizing an observational coding scheme to capture in-vivo problem solving behaviors between children with TBI and a best friend. The current study included children with TBI (n = 41), children with OI (n = 43), and a non-injured typically developing group (n = 41). All participants were observed completing a task with a friend and completed a measure of friendship quality. SPS was assessed using an observational coding scheme that captured SPS goals, strategies, and outcomes. It was expected children with TBI would produce fewer successes, fewer direct strategies, and more avoidant strategies. ANOVAs tested for group differences in SPS successes, direct strategies and avoidant strategies. Analyses were run to see if positive or negative friendship quality moderated the relation between group type and SPS behaviors. Group differences were found between the TBI and non-injured group in the SPS direct strategy of commands. No group differences were found for other SPS outcome variables of interest. Moderation analyses partially supported study hypotheses regarding the effect of friendship quality as a moderator variable. Additional analyses examined SPS goal-strategy sequencing and grouped SPS goals into high cost and low cost categories. Results showed a trend supporting the hypothesis that children with TBI had fewer SPS successes, especially with high cost goals, compared to the other two groups. Findings were discussed highlighting the moderation results involving children with severe TBI.

THE IMPACT OF UPPER-LEVEL PROCESSES ON THE INTENSITY AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES OF HURRICANE SANDY (2012)

The first part of this study examines the relative roles of frontogenesis and tropopause undulation in determining the intensity and structural changes of Hurricane Sandy (2012) using a high-resolution cloud-resolving model. A 138-h simulation reproduces Sandy’s four distinct development stages: (i) rapid intensification, (ii) weakening, (iii) steady maximum surface wind but with large continued sea-level pressure (SLP) falls, and (iv) re-intensification. Results show typical correlations between intensity changes, sea-surface temperature and vertical wind shear during the first two stages. The large SLP falls during the last two stages are mostly caused by Sandy’s moving northward into lower-tropopause regions associated with an eastward-propagating midlatitude trough, where the associated lower-stratospheric warm air wraps into the storm and its surrounding areas. The steady maximum surface wind occurs because of the widespread SLP falls with weak pressure gradients lacking significant inward advection of absolute angular momentum (AAM). Meanwhile, there is a continuous frontogenesis in the outer region during the last three stages. Cyclonic inward advection of AAM along each frontal rainband accounts for the continued expansion of the tropical-storm-force wind and structural changes, while deep convection in the eyewall and merging of the final two survived frontal rainbands generate a spiraling jet in Sandy’s northwestern quadrant, leading to its re-intensification prior to landfall. The physical, kinematic and dynamic aspects of an upper-level outflow layer and its possible impact on the re-intensification of Sandy are examined in the second part of this study. Above the outflow layer isentropes are tilted downward with radius as a result of the development of deep convection and an approaching upper-level trough, causing weak subsidence. Its maximum outward radial velocity is located above the cloud top, so the outflow channel experiences cloud-induced long-wave cooling. Because Sandy has two distinct convective regions (an eyewall and a frontal rainband), it has multiple outflow layers, with the eyewall’s outflow layer located above that of the frontal rainband. During the re-intensification stage, the eyewall’s outflow layer interacts with a jet stream ahead of the upper-level trough axis. Because of the presence of inertial instability on the anticyclonic side of the jet stream and symmetric instability in the inner region of the outflow layer, Sandy’s secondary circulation intensifies. Its re-intensification ceases when these instabilities disappear. The relationship between the intensity of the secondary circulation and dynamic instabilities of the outflow layer suggests that the re-intensification occurs in response to these instabilities. Additionally, it is verified that the long-wave cooling in the outflow layer helps induce symmetric instability by reducing static stability.