An Empirical Study of Fault Localization for End-User Programmers

End users develop more software than any other group of programmers, using software authoring devices such as e-mail filtering editors, by-demonstration macro builders, and spreadsheet environments. Despite this, there has been little research on finding ways to help these programmers with the dependability of their software. We have been addressing this problem in several ways, one of which includes supporting end-user debugging activities through fault localization techniques. This paper presents the results of an empirical study conducted in an end-user programming environment to examine the impact of two separate factors in fault localization techniques that affect technique effectiveness. Our results shed new insights into fault localization techniques for end-user programmers and the factors that affect them, with significant implications for the evaluation of those techniques.

Helping End-User Programmers “Engineer” Dependable Software

Not long ago, most software was written by professional programmers, who could be presumed to have an interest in software engineering methodologies and in tools and techniques for improving software dependability. Today, however, a great deal of software is written not by professionals but by end-users, who create applications such as multimedia simulations, dynamic web pages, and spreadsheets. Applications such as these are often used to guide important decisions or aid in important tasks, and it is important that they be sufficiently dependable, but evidence shows that they frequently are not. For example, studies have shown that a large percentage of the spreadsheets created by end-users contain faults, and stories abound of spreadsheet faults that have led to multi-million dollar losses. Despite such evidence, until recently, relatively little research had been done to help end-users create more dependable software.

Using Source-Code Analysis to Help End-user Programmers Create Dependable Software

Not long ago, most software was written by professional programmers, who could be presumed to have an interest in software engineering methodologies and in tools and techniques for improving software dependability. Today, however, a great deal of software is written not by professionals but by end-users, who create applications such as multimedia simulations, dynamic web pages, and spreadsheets. Applications such as these are often used to guide important decisions or aid in important tasks, and it is important that they be sufficiently dependable, but evidence shows that they frequently are not. For example, studies have shown that a large percentage of the spreadsheets created by end-users contain faults. Despite such evidence, until recently, relatively little research had been done to help end-users create more dependable software. We have been working to address this problem by finding ways to provide at least some of the benefits of formal software engineering techniques to end-user programmers. In this talk, focusing on the spreadsheet application paradigm, I present several of our approaches, focusing on methodologies that utilize source-code-analysis techniques to help end-users build more dependable spreadsheets. Behind the scenes, our methodologies use static analyses such as dataflow analysis and slicing, together with dynamic analyses such as execution monitoring, to support user tasks such as validation and fault localization. I show how, to accommodate the user base of spreadsheet languages, an interface to these methodologies can be provided in a manner that does not require an understanding of the theory behind the analyses, yet supports the interactive, incremental process by which spreadsheets are created. Finally, I present empirical results gathered in the use of our methodologies that highlight several costs and benefits trade-offs, and many opportunities for future work.

Analysis and Transformation of Pipe-like Web Mashups for End User Programmers

Mashups are becoming increasingly popular as end users are able to easily access, manipulate, and compose data from several web sources. To support end users, communities are forming around mashup development environments that facilitate sharing code and knowledge. We have observed, however, that end user mashups tend to suffer from several deficiencies, such as inoperable components or references to invalid data sources, and that those deficiencies are often propagated through the rampant reuse in these end user communities. In this work, we identify and specify ten code smells indicative of deficiencies we observed in a sample of 8,051 pipe-like web mashups developed by thousands of end users in the popular Yahoo! Pipes environment. We show through an empirical study that end users generally prefer pipes that lack those smells, and then present eleven specialized refactorings that we designed to target and remove the smells. Our refactorings reduce the complexity of pipes, increase their abstraction, update broken sources of data and dated components, and standardize pipes to fit the community development patterns. Our assessment on the sample of mashups shows that smells are present in 81% of the pipes, and that the proposed refactorings can reduce that number to 16%, illustrating the potential of refactoring to support thousands of end users developing pipe-like mashups.

Revealing the Copy and Paste Habits of End Users

Transferring data across applications is a common end user task, and copying and pasting via the clipboard lets users do so relatively easily. Using the clipboard, however, can also introduce inefficiencies and errors in user tasks. To help researchers and tool developers understand and address these problems, we studied how end users interact with the clipboard through cut, copy, and paste actions. This study was performed by logging clipboard interactions while end users performed everyday tasks. From the clipboard usage data, we have identified several usage patterns that describe how data is transferred within the desktop environment. Such patterns help us understand end user behavior and indicate areas in which clipboard support tools can be improved.

Helping End-Users “Engineer” Dependable Web Applications

End-user programmers are increasingly relying on web authoring environments to create web applications. Although often consisting primarily of web pages, such applications are increasingly going further, harnessing the content available on the web through “programs” that query other web applications for information to drive other tasks. Unfortunately, errors can be pervasive in web applications, impacting their dependability. This paper reports the results of an exploratory study of end-user web application developers, performed with the aim of exposing prevalent classes of errors. The results suggest that end-users struggle the most with the identification and manipulation of variables when structuring requests to obtain data from other web sites. To address this problem, we present a family of techniques that help end user programmers perform this task, reducing possible sources of error. The techniques focus on simplification and characterization of the data that end-users must analyze while developing their web applications. We report the results of an empirical study in which these techniques are applied to several popular web sites. Our results reveal several potential benefits for end-users who wish to “engineer” dependable web applications.

Optical Components for WDM Lightwave Networks

Recently, there has been growing interest in developing optical fiber networks to support the increasing bandwidth demands of multimedia applications, such as video conferencing and World Wide Web browsing. One technique for accessing the huge bandwidth available in an optical fiber is wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). Under WDM, the optical fiber bandwidth is divided into a number of nonoverlapping wavelength bands, each of which may be accessed at peak electronic rates by an end user. By utilizing WDM in optical networks, we can achieve link capacities on the order of 50 THz. The success of WDM networks depends heavily on the available optical device technology. This paper is intended as a tutorial on some of the optical device issues in WDM networks. It discusses the basic principles of optical transmission in fiber and reviews the current state of the art in optical device technology. It introduces some of the basic components in WDM networks, discusses various implementations of these components, and provides insights into their capabilities and limitations. Then, this paper demonstrates how various optical components can be incorporated into WDM optical networks for both local and wide-area applications. Last, the paper provides a brief review of experimental WDM networks that have been implemented.

Optical Communication Networks for the Next-Generation Internet

Computer and telecommunication networks are changing the world dramatically and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future. The Internet, primarily based on packet switches, provides very flexible data services such as e-mail and access to the World Wide Web. The Internet is a variable-delay, variable- bandwidth network that provides no guarantee on quality of service (QoS) in its initial phase. New services are being added to the pure data delivery framework of yesterday. Such high demands on capacity could lead to a “bandwidth crunch” at the core wide-area network, resulting in degradation of service quality. Fortunately, technological innovations have emerged which can provide relief to the end user to overcome the Internet’s well-known delay and bandwidth limitations. At the physical layer, a major overhaul of existing networks has been envisaged from electronic media (e.g., twisted pair and cable) to optical fibers - in wide-area, metropolitan-area, and even local-area settings. In order to exploit the immense bandwidth potential of optical fiber, interesting multiplexing techniques have been developed over the years.

A Two-phase Approach for Dynamic Lightpath Scheduling in WDM Optical Networks

Lightpath scheduling is an important capability in next-generation wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) optical networks to reserve resources in advance for a specified time period while provisioning end-to-end lightpaths. In a dynamic environment, the end user requests for dynamic scheduled lightpath demands (D-SLDs) need to be serviced without the knowledge of future requests. Even though the starting time of the request may be hours or days from the current time, the end-user however expects a quick response as to whether the request could be satisfied. We propose a two-phase approach to dynamically schedule and provision D-SLDs. In the first phase, termed the deterministic lightpath scheduling phase, upon arrival of a lightpath request, the network control plane schedules a path with guaranteed resources so that the user can get a quick response with a deterministic lightpath schedule. In the second phase, termed the lightpath re-optimization phase, we re-provision some already scheduled lightpaths to re-optimize for improving network performance. We study two reoptimization scenarios to reallocate network resources while maintaining the existing lightpath schedules. Experimental results show that our proposed two-phase dynamic lightpath scheduling approach can greatly reduce network blocking.

Scaling a Dataflow Testing Methodology to the MultiparadigmWorld of Commercial Spreadsheets

Spreadsheets are widely used but often contain faults. Thus, in prior work we presented a data-flow testing methodology for use with spreadsheets, which studies have shown can be used cost-effectively by end-user programmers. To date, however, the methodology has been investigated across a limited set of spreadsheet language features. Commercial spreadsheet environments are multiparadigm languages, utilizing features not accommodated by our prior approaches. In addition, most spreadsheets contain large numbers of replicated formulas that severely limit the efficiency of data-flow testing approaches. We show how to handle these two issues with a new data-flow adequacy criterion and automated detection of areas of replicated formulas, and report results of a controlled experiment investigating the feasibility of our approach.

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Characterization of Primary Amine End-Functionalized Polystyrene and Poly(methyl methacrylate) Synthesized by Living Anionic Polymerization Techniques

The reaction of living anionic polymers with 2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1-(3-bromopropyl)-1-aza-2,5- disilacyclopentane (1) was investigated using coupled thin layer chromatography and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Structures of byproducts as well as the major product were determined. The anionic initiator having a protected primary amine functional group, 2,2,5,5-tetramethyl- 1-(3-lithiopropyl)-1-aza-2,5-disilacyclopentane (2), was synthesized using all-glass high-vacuum techniques, which allows the long-term stability of this initiator to be maintained. The use of 2 in the preparation of well-defined aliphatic primary amine R-end-functionalized polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate) was investigated. Primary amino R-end-functionalized poly(methyl methacrylate) can be obtained near-quantitatively by reacting 2 with 1,1-diphenylethylene in tetrahydrofuran at room temperature prior to polymerizing methyl methacrylate at -78 °C. When 2 is used to initiate styrene at room temperature in benzene, an additive such as N,N,N',N'- tetramethylethylenediamine is necessary to activate the polymerization. However, although the resulting polymers have narrow molecular weight distributions and well-controlled molecular weights, our mass spectra data suggest that the yield of primary amine α-end-functionalized polystyrene from these syntheses is very low. The majority of the products are methyl α-end-functionalized polystyrene.