Trauma Treatment in Forensic Settings: Clinicians' Perspectives, Barriers to Effective Treatment, and Suggestions for Clinical Practice

Between 30% and 90% of the prison population is estimated to have survived traumatic experiences such as sexual, emotional, and physical abuse prior to incarceration (Anonymous, 1999; Fondacaro, Holt, & Powell, 1999; Messina & Grella, 2006; Pollard & Baker, 2000; Veysey, De Cou, & Prescott, 1998). Similarly, information from the Bureau of Justice Statistics (as reported in Warren, 2001) estimated that more than half of the women in state prisons have experienced past physical and sexual abuse. Thus, given the astonishing number of inmates who appear to be victims of some kind of trauma, it seems likely that those who work with these inmates (e.g., prison staff, guards, and treatment providers) will in some way encounter challenges related to the inmates' trauma history. These difficulties may appear in any number of forms including inmates' behavioral outbursts, increased emotionality, sensitivity to triggering situations, and chronic physical or mental health needs (Veysey, et al., 1998). It is also likely that these individuals with trauma histories would benefit greatly from treatment while incarcerated. This treatment could be utilized to minimize symptoms of posttraumatic stress, decrease behavioral problems, and help the inmate function more effectively in society when released from incarceration (Kokorowski & Freng, 2001; Tucker, Cosio, Meshreki, 2003). Few studies have explored the types of trauma treatment that are effective with inmate populations or made specific suggestions for clinicians working in forensic settings (Kokorowski & Freng, 2001). Essentially, there appears to be a large gap in terms of the need for trauma treatment for inmates and the lack of literature addressing what to do about it. However, clinicians across the country seem to be quietly attempting to fulfill this need for trauma treatment with incarcerated populations. They are providing this greatly needed treatment every day. in the face of enormous challenges and often without recognition or the opportunity to share their valuable work with the larger community.

Investigating and Understanding Student Learning Outcomes in an Online and Face-to-Face Graduate Level Legal Administration Course: An Embedded Mixed Methods Design

Online education is a new teaching and learning medium with few current guidelines for faculty, administrators or students. Its rapid growth over the last decade has challenged academic institutions to keep up with the demand, while also providing a quality education. Our understanding of the factors that determine quality and effective online learning experiences that lead to student learning outcomes is still evolving. There is a lack of consensus on the effectiveness of online versus face-to-face education in the current research. The U.S. Department of Education conducted a meta-analysis in 2009 and concluded that student-learning outcomes in online courses were equal to and, often times, better than face-to-face traditional courses. Subsequent research has found contradictory findings, and further inquiry is necessary. The purpose of this embedded mixed methods design research study is to further our understanding of the factors that create quality and successful educational outcomes in an online course. To achieve this, the first phase of this study measured and compared learning outcomes in an online and in class graduate-level legal administration course. The second phase of the study entailed interviews with those students in both the online and face-to-face sections to understand their perspectives on the factors contributing to learning outcomes. Six themes emerged from the qualitative findings: convenience, higher order thinking, discussions, professor engagement, professor and student interaction, and face-to-face interaction. Findings from this study indicate the factors students perceive as contributing to learning outcomes in an online course are consistent among all students and are supported in the existing literature. Higher order thinking, however, emerged as a stronger theme than indicated in the current research, and the face-to-face nature of the traditional classroom may be more an issue of familiarity than a factor contributing to learning outcomes. As education continues to reach new heights and developments in technology advance, the factors found to contribute to student learning outcomes will be refined and enhanced. These developments will continue to transform the ways in which we deliver and receive knowledge in both traditional and online classrooms. While there is a growing body of research on online education, the field’s evolution has unsettled earlier findings and posed new areas to investigate.