Optimisation of granola breakfast cereal manufacturing process by wet granulation and pneumatic conveying

This study has considered the optimisation of granola breakfast cereal manufacturing processes by wet granulation and pneumatic conveying. Granola is an aggregated food product used as a breakfast cereal and in cereal bars. Processing of granola involves mixing the dry ingredients (typically oats, nuts, etc.) followed by the addition of a binder which can contain honey, water and/or oil. In this work, the design and operation of two parallel wet granulation processes to produce aggregate granola products were incorporated: a) a high shear mixing granulation process followed by drying/toasting in an oven. b) a continuous fluidised bed followed by drying/toasting in an oven. In high shear granulation the influence of process parameters on key granule aggregate quality attributes such as granule size distribution and textural properties of granola were investigated. The experimental results show that the impeller rotational speed is the single most important process parameter which influences granola physical and textural properties. After that binder addition rate and wet massing time also show significant impacts on granule properties. Increasing the impeller speed and wet massing time increases the median granule size while also presenting a positive correlation with density. The combination of high impeller speed and low binder addition rate resulted in granules with the highest levels of hardness and crispness. In the fluidised bed granulation process the effect of nozzle air pressure and binder spray rate on key aggregate quality attributes were studied. The experimental results show that a decrease in nozzle air pressure leads to larger in mean granule size. The combination of lowest nozzle air pressure and lowest binder spray rate results in granules with the highest levels of hardness and crispness. Overall, the high shear granulation process led to larger, denser, less porous and stronger (less likely to break) aggregates than the fluidised bed process. The study also examined the particle breakage of granola during pneumatic conveying produced by both the high shear granulation and the fluidised bed granulation process. Products were pneumatically conveyed in a purpose built conveying rig designed to mimic product conveying and packaging. Three different conveying rig configurations were employed; a straight pipe, a rig consisting two 45° bends and one with 90° bend. Particle breakage increases with applied pressure drop, and a 90° bend pipe results in more attrition for all conveying velocities relative to other pipe geometry. Additionally for the granules produced in the high shear granulator; those produced at the highest impeller speed, while being the largest also have the lowest levels of proportional breakage while smaller granules produced at the lowest impeller speed have the highest levels of breakage. This effect clearly shows the importance of shear history (during granule production) on breakage during subsequent processing. In terms of the fluidised bed granulation, there was no single operating parameter that was deemed to have a significant effect on breakage during subsequent conveying. Finally, a simple power law breakage model based on process input parameters was developed for both manufacturing processes. It was found suitable for predicting the breakage of granola breakfast cereal at various applied air velocities using a number of pipe configurations, taking into account shear histories.

Sources and mixing state of size-resolved elemental carbon particles in a European megacity: Paris

An Aerosol Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometer (ATOFMS) was deployed to investigate the size-resolved chemical composition of single particles at an urban background site in Paris, France, as part of the MEGAPOLI winter campaign in January/February 2010. ATOFMS particle counts were scaled to match coincident Twin Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (TDMPS) data in order to generate hourly size-resolved mass concentrations for the single particle classes observed. The total scaled ATOFMS particle mass concentration in the size range 150–1067 nm was found to agree very well with the sum of concurrent High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) and Multi-Angle Absorption Photometer (MAAP) mass concentration measurements of organic carbon (OC), inorganic ions and black carbon (BC) (R2 = 0.91). Clustering analysis of the ATOFMS single particle mass spectra allowed the separation of elemental carbon (EC) particles into four classes: (i) EC attributed to biomass burning (ECbiomass), (ii) EC attributed to traffic (ECtraffic), (iii) EC internally mixed with OC and ammonium sulfate (ECOCSOx), and (iv) EC internally mixed with OC and ammonium nitrate (ECOCNOx). Average hourly mass concentrations for EC-containing particles detected by the ATOFMS were found to agree reasonably well with semi-continuous quantitative thermal/optical EC and optical BC measurements (r2 = 0.61 and 0.65–0.68 respectively, n = 552). The EC particle mass assigned to fossil fuel and biomass burning sources also agreed reasonably well with BC mass fractions assigned to the same sources using seven-wavelength aethalometer data (r2 = 0.60 and 0.48, respectively, n = 568). Agreement between the ATOFMS and other instrumentation improved noticeably when a period influenced by significantly aged, internally mixed EC particles was removed from the intercomparison. 88% and 12% of EC particle mass was apportioned to fossil fuel and biomass burning respectively using the ATOFMS data compared with 85% and 15% respectively for BC estimated from the aethalometer model. On average, the mass size distribution for EC particles is bimodal; the smaller mode is attributed to locally emitted, mostly externally mixed EC particles, while the larger mode is dominated by aged, internally mixed ECOCNOx particles associated with continental transport events. Periods of continental influence were identified using the Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model (LPDM) "FLEXPART". A consistent minimum between the two EC mass size modes was observed at approximately 400 nm for the measurement period. EC particles below this size are attributed to local emissions using chemical mixing state information and contribute 79% of the scaled ATOFMS EC particle mass, while particles above this size are attributed to continental transport events and contribute 21% of the EC particle mass. These results clearly demonstrate the potential benefit of monitoring size-resolved mass concentrations for the separation of local and continental EC emissions. Knowledge of the relative input of these emissions is essential for assessing the effectiveness of local abatement strategies.

Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Cork Harbour, Ireland using a combination of single particle mass spectrometry and quantitative semi-continuous measurements

An aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer (ATOFMS) was deployed for the measurement of the size resolved chemical composition of single particles at a site in Cork Harbour, Ireland for three weeks in August 2008. The ATOFMS was co-located with a suite of semi-continuous instrumentation for the measurement of particle number, elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), sulfate and particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5). The temporality of the ambient ATOFMS particle classes was subsequently used in conjunction with the semi-continuous measurements to apportion PM2.5 mass using positive matrix factorisation. The synergy of the single particle classification procedure and positive matrix factorisation allowed for the identification of six factors, corresponding to vehicular traffic, marine, long-range transport, various combustion, domestic solid fuel combustion and shipping traffic with estimated contributions to the measured PM2.5 mass of 23%, 14%, 13%, 11%, 5% and 1.5% respectively. Shipping traffic was found to contribute 18% of the measured particle number (20–600 nm mobility diameter), and thus may have important implications for human health considering the size and composition of ship exhaust particles. The positive matrix factorisation procedure enabled a more refined interpretation of the single particle results by providing source contributions to PM2.5 mass, while the single particle data enabled the identification of additional factors not possible with typical semi-continuous measurements, including local shipping traffic.