The formulation, testing and stability of 16% fat cream liqueurs

Cream liqueurs manufactured by a one-step process, where alcohol was added before homogenisation, were more stable than those processed by a two -step process which involved addition of alcohol after homogenisation. Using the one-step process, it was possible to produce creaming-stable liqueurs by using one pass through a homogeniser (27.6 MPa) equipped with "liquid whirl" valves. Test procedures to characterise cream liqueurs and to predict shelf life were studied in detail. A turbidity test proved simple, rapid and sensitive for characterising particle size and homogenisation efficiency. Prediction of age thickening/gelation in cream liqueurs during incubation at 45 °C depended on the age of the sample when incubated. Samples that gelled at 45 °C may not do so at ambient temperature. Commercial cream liqueurs were similar in gross chemical composition, and unlike experimentally produced liqueurs, these did not exhibit either age-gelation at ambient or elevated temperatures. Solutions of commercial sodium caseinates from different sources varied in their calcium sensitivity. When incorporated into cream liqueurs, caseinates influenced the rate of viscosity increase, coalescence and, possibly, gelation during incubated storage. Mild heat and alcohol treatment modified the properties of caseinate used to stabilise non-alcoholic emulsions, while the presence of alcohol in emulsions was important in preventing clustering of globules. The response to added trisodium citrate varied. In many cases, addition of the recommended level (0.18%) did not prevent gelation. Addition of small amounts of NaOH with 0.18 % trisodium citrate before homogenisation was beneficial. The stage at which citrate was added during processing was critical to the degree of viscosity increase (as opposed to gelation) in the product during 45 °C incubation. The component responsible for age-gelation was present in the milk-solids non fat portion of the cream and variations in the creams used were important in the age-gelation phenomenon Results indicated that, in addition to possibly Ca++, the micellar casein portion of serum may play a role in gelation. The role of the low molecular weight surfactants, sodium stearoyl lactylate and monodiglycerides in preventing gelation, was influenced by the presence of trisodium citrate. Clustering of fat globules and age-gelation were inhibited when 0.18 % citrate was included. Inclusion of sodium stearoyl lactylate, but not monodiglycerides, reduced the extent of viscosity increase at 45 °C in citrate containing liqueurs.

The utility of survey and administrative data to generate information for research and outcomes-based oral health services development

The aim of this research, which focused on the Irish adult population, was to generate information for policymakers by applying statistical analyses and current technologies to oral health administrative and survey databases. Objectives included identifying socio-demographic influences on oral health and utilisation of dental services, comparing epidemiologically-estimated dental treatment need with treatment provided, and investigating the potential of a dental administrative database to provide information on utilisation of services and the volume and types of treatment provided over time. Information was extracted from the claims databases for the Dental Treatment Benefit Scheme (DTBS) for employed adults and the Dental Treatment Services Scheme (DTSS) for less-well-off adults, the National Surveys of Adult Oral Health, and the 2007 Survey of Lifestyle Attitudes and Nutrition in Ireland. Factors associated with utilisation and retention of natural teeth were analysed using count data models and logistic regression. The chi-square test and the student’s t-test were used to compare epidemiologically-estimated need in a representative sample of adults with treatment provided. Differences were found in dental care utilisation and tooth retention by Socio-Economic Status. An analysis of the five-year utilisation behaviour of a 2003 cohort of DTBS dental attendees revealed that age and being female were positively associated with visiting annually and number of treatments. Number of adults using the DTBS increased, and mean number of treatments per patient decreased, between 1997 and 2008. As a percentage of overall treatments, restorations, dentures, and extractions decreased, while prophylaxis increased. Differences were found between epidemiologically-estimated treatment need and treatment provided for those using the DTBS and DTSS. This research confirms the utility of survey and administrative data to generate knowledge for policymakers. Public administrative databases have not been designed for research purposes, but they have the potential to provide a wealth of knowledge on treatments provided and utilisation patterns.