Functional and structural dissection of the tape measure protein of lactococcal phage TP901-1

The tail tape measure protein (TMP) of tailed bacteriophages (also called phages) dictates the tail length and facilitates DNA transit to the cell cytoplasm during infection. Here, a thorough mutational analysis of the TMP from lactococcal phage TP901-1 (TMPTP901-1) was undertaken. We generated 56 mutants aimed at defining TMPTP901-1 domains that are essential for tail assembly and successful infection. Through analysis of the derived mutants, we determined that TP901-1 infectivity requires the N-terminal 154 aa residues, the C-terminal 60 residues and the first predicted hydrophobic region of TMPTP901-1 as a minimum. Furthermore, the role of TMPTP901-1 in tail length determination was visualized by electron microscopic imaging of TMP-deletion mutants. The inverse linear correlation between the extent of TMPTP901-1-encoding gene deletions and tail length of the corresponding virion provides an estimate of TMPTP901-1 regions interacting with the connector or involved in initiator complex formation. This study represents the most thorough characterisation of a TMP from a Gram-positive host-infecting phage and provides essential advances to understanding its role in virion assembly, morphology and infection.

Tetraspanin 3: A central endocytic membrane component regulating the expression of ADAM10, presenilin and the amyloid precursor protein

Despite existing knowledge about the role of the A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10) as the α-secretase involved in the non-amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Notch signalling we have only limited information about its regulation. In this study, we have identified ADAM10 interactors using a split ubiquitin yeast two hybrid approach. Tetraspanin 3 (Tspan3), which is highly expressed in the murine brain and elevated in brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, was identified and confirmed to bind ADAM10 by co-immunoprecipitation experiments in mammalian cells in complex with APP and the γ-secretase protease presenilin. Tspan3 expression increased the cell surface levels of its interacting partners and was mainly localized in early and late endosomes. In contrast to the previously described ADAM10-binding tetraspanins, Tspan3 did not affect the endoplasmic reticulum to plasma membrane transport of ADAM10. Heterologous Tspan3 expression significantly increased the appearance of carboxy-terminal cleavage products of ADAM10 and APP, whereas N-cadherin ectodomain shedding appeared unaffected. Inhibiting the endocytosis of Tspan3 by mutating a critical cytoplasmic tyrosine-based internalization motif led to increased surface expression of APP and ADAM10. After its downregulation in neuroblastoma cells and in brains of Tspan3-deficient mice, ADAM10 and APP levels appeared unaltered possibly due to a compensatory increase in the expression of Tspans 5 and 7, respectively. In conclusion, our data suggest that Tspan3 acts in concert with other tetraspanins as a stabilizing factor of active ADAM10, APP and the γ-secretase complex at the plasma membrane and within the endocytic pathway.

Investigating the invasive and cytoprotective properties of the heme binding protein HRG-1 in cancer cells

This thesis investigates the mechanisms by which HRG-1 contributes to the invasive and cytoprotective signalling pathways in cancer cells through its effects on VATPase activity and heme transport. Plasma membrane-localised V-ATPase activity correlates with enhanced metastatic potential in cancer cells, which is attributed to extrusion of protons into the extracellular space and activation of pH-sensitive, extracellular matrix degrading-proteases. We found that HRG-1 is co-expressed with the V-ATPase at the plasma membrane of certain aggressive cancer cell types. Modulation of HRG-1 expression altered both the localisation and activity of the VATPase. We also found that HRG-1 enhances trafficking of essential transporters such as the glucose transporter (GLUT-1) in cancer cells, and increases glucose uptake, which is required for cancer cell growth, metabolism and V-ATPase assembly. Heme is potentially cytotoxic, owing to its iron moiety, and therefore the trafficking of heme is tightly controlled in cells. We hypothesised that HRG-1 is required for the transport of heme to intracellular compartments. Importantly, we found that HRG-1 interacts with the heme oxygenases that are necessary for heme catabolism. HRG-1 is also required for trafficking of both heme-bound and nonheme-bound receptors and suppression of HRG-1 results in perturbed receptor trafficking to the lysosome. Suppression of HRG-1 in HeLa cells increases toxic heme accumulation, reactive oxygen species accumulation, and DNA damage resulting in caspasedependent cell death. Mutation of essential heme binding residues in HRG-1 results in decreased heme binding to HRG-1. Interestingly, cells expressing heme-binding HRG-1 mutants exhibit decreased internalisation of the transferrin receptor compared to cells expressing wildtype HRG-1. These findings suggest that HRG- 1/heme trafficking contributes to a hitherto unappreciated aspect of receptormediated endocytosis. Overall, the findings of this thesis show that HRG-1-mediated regulation of intracellular and extracellular pH through V-ATPase activity is essential for a functioning endocytic pathway. This is critical for cells to acquire nutrients such as folate, iron and glucose and to mediate signalling in response to growth factor activation. Thus, HRG-1 facilitates enhanced metabolic activity of cancer cells to enable tumour growth and metastasis.