Hollow core photonic crystal fibre as a viscosity and Raman sensor

This PhD thesis investigates the application of hollow core photonic crystal fibre for use as an optical fibre nano litre liquid sensor. The use of hollow core photonic crystal fibre for optical fibre sensing is influenced by the vast wealth of knowledge, and years of research that has been conducted for optical waveguides. Hollow core photonic crystal fibres have the potential for use as a simple, rapid and continuous sensor for a wide range of applications. In this thesis, the velocity of a liquid flowing through the core of the fibre (driven by capillary forces) is used for the determination of the viscosity of a liquid. The structure of the hollow core photonic crystal fibre is harnessed to collect Raman scatter from the sample liquid. These two methods are integrated to investigate the range of applications the hollow core photonic crystal fibre can be utilised for as an optical liquid sensor. Understanding the guidance properties of hollow core photonic crystal fibre is forefront in dynamically monitoring the liquid filling. When liquid is inserted fully or selectively to the capillaries, the propagation properties change from photonic bandgap guidance when empty, to index guidance when the core only is filled and finally to a shifted photonic bandgap effect, when the capillaries are fully filled. The alterations to the guidance are exploited for all viscosity and Raman scattering measurements. The concept of the optical fibre viscosity sensor was tested for a wide range of samples, from aqueous solutions of propan-1-ol to solutions of mono-saccharides in phosphate buffer saline. The samples chosen to test the concept were selected after careful consideration of the importance of the liquid in medical and industrial applications. The Raman scattering of a wide range of biological important fluids, such as creatinine, glucose and lactate were investigated, some for the first time with hollow core photonic crystal fibre.

Biosensors using photonic crystal fibres

In this thesis, we present the unique properties of hollow-core photonic crystal fibres (HC-PCFs) for sensing applications in terms of viscosity detection and DNA sensing using a special poly(ethylene) glycol (PEGDA) hydrogel. The low loss HC-PCFs ensure a long interaction length between the sample and the optical signals. Thus in this thesis, we report the characterisation of filled HC-PCFs and the development of a selective filling process. For the first time, we report the investigation of a new viscometer device, and a new device for DNA sensing development, and also the chemical process for hydrogel growth was adapted to the fibres. By combining HC-PCFs with the hydrogel we enable 3D volumetric sample confinement within the HC-PCF, further increasing the interaction between the sample and the optical signal. However, the hydrogel has a large influence on the guidance properties of the HC-PCF and the HC-PCF has a strong influence on the growth process for the hydrogel itself. When we integrate the hydrogel and HC-PCFs we detect concentration levels as low as 400 nM of labelled DNA. However, using our technology for fluorescence detection we can achieve results two orders of magnitude better than those previously reported.

Development and optimisation of photonic crystal based nanosensors

This thesis involved the development of two Biosensors and their associated assays for the detection of diseases, namely IBR and BVD for veterinary use and C1q protein as a biomarker to pancreatic cancer for medical application, using Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) and nanoplasmonics. SPR techniques have been used by a number of groups, both in research [1-3] and commercially [4, 5] , as a diagnostic tool for the detection of various biomolecules, especially antibodies [6-8]. The biosensor market is an ever expanding field, with new technology and new companies rapidly emerging on the market, for both human [8] and veterinary applications [9, 10]. In Chapter 2, we discuss the development of a simultaneous IBR and BVD virus assay for the detection of antibodies in bovine serum on an SPR-2 platform. Pancreatic cancer is the most lethal cancer by organ site, partially due to the lack of a reliable molecular signature for diagnostic testing. C1q protein has been recently proposed as a biomarker within a panel for the detection of pancreatic cancer. The third chapter discusses the fabrication, assays and characterisation of nanoplasmonic arrays. We will talk about developing C1q scFv antibody assays, clone screening of the antibodies and subsequently moving the assays onto the nanoplasmonic array platform for static assays, as well as a custom hybrid benchtop system as a diagnostic method for the detection of pancreatic cancer. Finally, in chapter 4, we move on to Guided Mode Resonance (GMR) sensors, as a low-cost option for potential use in Point-of Care diagnostics. C1q and BVD assays used in the prior formats are transferred to this platform, to ascertain its usability as a cost effective, reliable sensor for diagnostic testing. We discuss the fabrication, characterisation and assay development, as well as their use in the benchtop hybrid system.

Hybrid photonic crystal lasers

Energy efficient Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is the key to satisfying the future bandwidth requirements of datacentres. As the silicon photonics platform is regarded the only technology able to meet the required power and cost efficiency levels, the development of silicon photonics compatible narrow linewidth lasers is now crucial. We discuss the requirements for such laser systems and report the experimental demonstration of a compact uncooled external-cavity mW-class laser architecture with a tunable Si Photonic Crystal resonant reflector, suitable for direct Frequency Modulation.

Polymer and metallodielectric based photonic crystals

The bottom-up colloidal synthesis of photonic crystals has attracted interest over top-down approaches due to their relatively simplicity, the potential to produce large areas, and the low-costs with this approach in fabricating complex 3-dimensional structures. This thesis focuses on the bottom-up approach in the fabrication of polymeric colloidal photonic crystals and their subsequent modification. Poly(methyl methacrylate) sub-micron spheres were used to produce opals, inverse opals and 3D metallodielectric photonic crystal (MDPC) structures. The fabrication of MDPCs with Au nanoparticles attached to the PMMA spheres core–shell particles is described. Various alternative procedures for the fabrication of photonic crystals and MDPCs are described and preliminary results on the use of an Au-based MDPC for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) are presented. These preliminary results suggest a threefold increase of the Raman signal with the MDPC as compared to PMMA photonic crystals. The fabrication of PMMA-gold and PMMA-nickel MDPC structures via an optimised electrodeposition process is described. This process results in the formation of a continuous dielectric-metal interface throughout a 3D inverted photonic crystal structure, which are shown to possess interesting optical properties. The fabrication of a robust 3D silica inverted structure with embedded Au nanoparticles is described by a novel co-crystallisation method which is capable of creating a SiO2/Au NP composite structure in a single step process. Although this work focuses on the creation of photonic crystals, this co-crystallisation approach has potential for the creation of other functional materials. A method for the fabrication of inverted opals containing silicon nanoparticles using aerosol assisted chemical vapour deposition is described. Silicon is a high dielectric material and nanoparticles of silicon can improve the band gap and absorption properties of the resulting structure, and therefore have the potential to be exploited in photovoltaics.

Artificial opal photonic crystals and inverse opal structures - fundamentals and applications from optics to energy storage

Photonic crystals (PhCs) influence the propagation of light by their periodic variation in dielectric contrast or refractive index. This review outlines the attractive optical qualities inherent to most PhCs namely the presence of full or partial photonic band gaps and the possibilities they present towards the inhibition of spontaneous emission and the localization of light. Colloidal self-assembly of polymer or silica spheres is one of the most favoured and low cost methods for the formation of PhCs as artificial opals. The state of the art in growth methods currently used for colloidal self-assembly are discussed and the use of these structures for the formation of inverse opal architectures is then presented. Inverse opal structures with their porous and interconnected architecture span several technological arenas - optics and optoelectronics, energy storage, communications, sensor and biological applications. This review presents several of these applications and an accessible overview of the physics of photonic crystal optics that may be useful for opal and inverse opal researchers in general, with a particular emphasis on the recent use of these three-dimensional porous structures in electrochemical energy storage technology. Progress towards all-optical integrated circuits may lie with the concepts of the photonic crystal, but the unique optical and structural properties of these materials and the convergence of PhC and energy storage disciplines may facilitate further developments and non-destructive optical analysis capabilities for (electro)chemical processes that occur within a wide variety of materials in energy storage research.

Design, fabrication and characterization of resonant waveguide grating based optical biosensors

The absence of rapid, low cost and highly sensitive biodetection platform has hindered the implementation of next generation cheap and early stage clinical or home based point-of-care diagnostics. Label-free optical biosensing with high sensitivity, throughput, compactness, and low cost, plays an important role to resolve these diagnostic challenges and pushes the detection limit down to single molecule. Optical nanostructures, specifically the resonant waveguide grating (RWG) and nano-ribbon cavity based biodetection are promising in this context. The main element of this dissertation is design, fabrication and characterization of RWG sensors for different spectral regions (e.g. visible, near infrared) for use in label-free optical biosensing and also to explore different RWG parameters to maximize sensitivity and increase detection accuracy. Design and fabrication of the waveguide embedded resonant nano-cavity are also studied. Multi-parametric analyses were done using customized optical simulator to understand the operational principle of these sensors and more important the relationship between the physical design parameters and sensor sensitivities. Silicon nitride (SixNy) is a useful waveguide material because of its wide transparency across the whole infrared, visible and part of UV spectrum, and comparatively higher refractive index than glass substrate. SixNy based RWGs on glass substrate are designed and fabricated applying both electron beam lithography and low cost nano-imprint lithography techniques. A Chromium hard mask aided nano-fabrication technique is developed for making very high aspect ratio optical nano-structure on glass substrate. An aspect ratio of 10 for very narrow (~60 nm wide) grating lines is achieved which is the highest presented so far. The fabricated RWG sensors are characterized for both bulk (183.3 nm/RIU) and surface sensitivity (0.21nm/nm-layer), and then used for successful detection of Immunoglobulin-G (IgG) antibodies and antigen (~1μg/ml) both in buffer and serum. Widely used optical biosensors like surface plasmon resonance and optical microcavities are limited in the separation of bulk response from the surface binding events which is crucial for ultralow biosensing application with thermal or other perturbations. A RWG based dual resonance approach is proposed and verified by controlled experiments for separating the response of bulk and surface sensitivity. The dual resonance approach gives sensitivity ratio of 9.4 whereas the competitive polarization based approach can offer only 2.5. The improved performance of the dual resonance approach would help reducing probability of false reading in precise bio-assay experiments where thermal variations are probable like portable diagnostics.

Impact of DWDM at 50GHz spacing in the 2µm waveban

In this paper, we show for the first time the impact of decreasing DWDM channel spacing to 50GHz in the 2mm waveband, using 6x12.5Gbit/s and 2x8Gbit/s OOK signals.