The human impacts of flower farm development in the Ethiopian Rift Valley region

The flower industry has a reputation for heavy usage of toxic chemicals and polluting the environment, enormous consumption of water, and poor working condition and low wage level in various parts of the world. It is unfortunate that this industry is adamant to change and repeating the same mistakes in Ethiopia. Because of this, - there is a growing concern among the general public and the international community about sustainability of the Ethiopian flower industry. Consequently, working conditions in the flower industry, impacts of wage income on the livelihoods of employees, coping strategies of low wage flower farm workers, impacts of flower farms on the livelihoods of local people and environmental pollution and conflict, were analysed. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed. Four quantitative data sets: labour practice, employees’ income and expenditure, displaced household, and flower grower views survey were collected between 2010 and 2012. Robust regression to identify the determinants of wage levels, and Multinomial logit to identify the determinants of coping strategies of flower farm workers and displaced households were employed. The findings show the working conditions in flower farms are characterized by low wages, job insecurity and frequent violation of employees’ rights, and poor safety measures. To ensure survival of their family, land dispossessed households adopt a wide range of strategies including reduction in food consumption, sharing oxen, renting land, share cropping, and shifting staple food crops. Most experienced scarcity of water resources, lack of grazing areas, death of herds and reduced numbers of livestock due to water source pollution. Despite the Ethiopian government investment in attracting and creating conducive environment for investors, not much was accomplished when it comes to enforcing labour laws and environmental policies. Flower farm expansion in Ethiopia, as it is now, can be viewed as part of the global land and water grab and is not all inclusive and sustainable. Several recommendations are made to improve working conditions, maximize the benefits of flower industry to the society, and to the country at large.

The reproductive biology of the exploited razor clam, Ensis siliqua, in the Irish Sea

Knowledge of the reproductive cycle of a species is a prerequisite for sustainable management of a fishery. The infaunal marine bivalve, Ensis siliqua, is a commercially important species in Europe, and is exploited in many countries, including Ireland, where it is sold by wet weight. Seasonal variations in the reproductive cycle of subtidal razor clams from the Skerries region of the Irish Sea, an important fisheries area, were examined between June 2010 and September 2011 while monitoring weight. Histological examination revealed that the E. siliqua sex-ratio was not different from parity, and no hermaphrodites were observed in the samples collected. In the summer months of 2010 all female clams were either spent or in early development, with just a small percentage of males still spawning. The gonads of both sexes developed over the autumn and winter months of 2010, with the first spawning individuals recorded in January 2011. Spawning peaked in March 2011, but unlike in 2010, spawning continued through June and July with all animals spent in August 2011. The earlier and longer spawning period found in this species in 2011 compared to 2010 may have been due to the colder than normal temperature observed during the winter of 2010 plus the relatively warmer temperatures of Spring 2011, which could have affected the gametogenic development of E. siliqua in the Irish Sea. It was noted that wet weight dropped in the summer months of both years, immediately after the spawning period which may impact on the practicality of fishing for this species during this period. Timing of development and spawning is compared with other sites in the Irish Sea and elsewhere in Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula.