Hybrid photonic crystal lasers

Energy efficient Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is the key to satisfying the future bandwidth requirements of datacentres. As the silicon photonics platform is regarded the only technology able to meet the required power and cost efficiency levels, the development of silicon photonics compatible narrow linewidth lasers is now crucial. We discuss the requirements for such laser systems and report the experimental demonstration of a compact uncooled external-cavity mW-class laser architecture with a tunable Si Photonic Crystal resonant reflector, suitable for direct Frequency Modulation.

Evanescent field sensing: optical nanofibres, whispering-gallery-mode microspherical and microbubble resonators

In this thesis, the evanescent field sensing techniques of tapered optical nanofibres and microspherical resonators are investigated. This includes evanescent field spectroscopy of a silica nanofibre in a rubidium vapour; thermo-optical tuning of Er:Yb co-doped phosphate glass microspheres; optomechanical properties of microspherical pendulums; and the fabrication and characterisation of borosilicate microbubble resonators. Doppler-broadened and sub-Doppler absorption spectroscopic techniques are performed around the D2 transition (780.24 nm) of rubidium using the evanescent field produced at the waist of a tapered nanofibre with input probe powers as low as 55 nW. Doppler-broadened Zeeman shifts and a preliminary dichroic atomic vapour laser lock (DAVLL) line shape are also observed via the nanofibre waist with an applied magnetic field of 60 G. This device has the potential for laser frequency stabilisation while also studying the effects of atom-surface interactions. A non-invasive thermo-optical tuning technique of Er:Yb co-doped microspheres to specific arbitrary wavelengths is demonstrated particularly to 1294 nm and the 5S1/2F=3 to 5P3/2Fʹ=4 laser cooling transition of 85Rb. Reversible tuning ranges of up to 474 GHz and on resonance cavity timescales on the order of 100 s are reported. This procedure has prospective applications for sensing a variety of atomic or molecular species in a cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) experiments. The mechanical characteristics of a silica microsphere pendulum with a relatively low spring constant of 10-4 Nm-1 are explored. A novel method of frequency sweeping the motion of the pendulum to determine its natural resonance frequencies while overriding its sensitivity to environmental noise is proposed. An estimated force of 0.25 N is required to actuate the pendulum by a displacement of (1-2) μm. It is suggested that this is of sufficient magnitude to be experienced between two evanescently coupled microspheres (photonic molecule) and enable spatial trapping of the micropendulum. Finally, single-input borosilicate microbubble resonators with diameters <100 μm are fabricated using a CO2 laser. Optical whispering gallery mode spectra are observed via evanescent coupling with a tapered fibre. A red-shift of (4-22) GHz of the resonance modes is detected when the hollow cavity was filled with nano-filtered water. A polarisation conversion effect, with an efficiency of 10%, is observed when the diameter of the coupling tapered fibre waist is varied. This effect is also achieved by simply varying the polarisation of the input light in the tapered fibre where the efficiency is optimised to 92%. Thus, the microbubble device acts as a reversible band-pass to band-stop optical filter for cavity-QED, integrated solid-state and semiconductor circuit applications.

Low-linewidth and tunable single frequency 1x2 multimode-interferometer-Fabry-Perot laser diode

In this paper, we present a novel 1x2 multi-mode-interferometer-Fabry-Perot (MMI-FP) laser diode, which demonstrated tunable single frequency operation with more than 30dB side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) and a tuning range of 25nm in the C and L bands, as well as a 750 kHz linewidth. These lasers do not require material regrowth and high resolution gratings; resulting in a simpler process that can significantly increase the yield and reduce the cost.

Photonic integrated circuits for the generation of coherent optical signals

The demand for optical bandwidth continues to increase year on year and is being driven primarily by entertainment services and video streaming to the home. Current photonic systems are coping with this demand by increasing data rates through faster modulation techniques, spectrally efficient transmission systems and by increasing the number of modulated optical channels per fibre strand. Such photonic systems are large and power hungry due to the high number of discrete components required in their operation. Photonic integration offers excellent potential for combining otherwise discrete system components together on a single device to provide robust, power efficient and cost effective solutions. In particular, the design of optical modulators has been an area of immense interest in recent times. Not only has research been aimed at developing modulators with faster data rates, but there has also a push towards making modulators as compact as possible. Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZM) have proven to be highly successful in many optical communication applications. However, due to the relatively weak electro-optic effect on which they are based, they remain large with typical device lengths of 4 to 7 mm while requiring a travelling wave structure for high-speed operation. Nested MZMs have been extensively used in the generation of advanced modulation formats, where multi-symbol transmission can be used to increase data rates at a given modulation frequency. Such nested structures have high losses and require both complex fabrication and packaging. In recent times, it has been shown that Electro-absorption modulators (EAMs) can be used in a specific arrangement to generate Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) modulation. EAM based QPSK modulators have increased potential for integration and can be made significantly more compact than MZM based modulators. Such modulator designs suffer from losses in excess of 40 dB, which limits their use in practical applications. The work in this thesis has focused on how these losses can be reduced by using photonic integration. In particular, the integration of multiple lasers with the modulator structure was considered as an excellent means of reducing fibre coupling losses while maximising the optical power on chip. A significant difficultly when using multiple integrated lasers in such an arrangement was to ensure coherence between the integrated lasers. The work investigated in this thesis demonstrates for the first time how optical injection locking between discrete lasers on a single photonic integrated circuit (PIC) can be used in the generation of coherent optical signals. This was done by first considering the monolithic integration of lasers and optical couplers to form an on chip optical power splitter, before then examining the behaviour of a mutually coupled system of integrated lasers. By operating the system in a highly asymmetric coupling regime, a stable phase locking region was found between the integrated lasers. It was then shown that in this stable phase locked region the optical outputs of each laser were coherent with each other and phase locked to a common master laser.

Photonic integrated circuit for the manipulation of coherent optical combs

Photonic integration has become an important research topic in research for applications in the telecommunications industry. Current optical internet infrastructure has reached capacity with current generation dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems fully occupying the low absorption region of optical fibre from 1530 nm to 1625 nm (the C and L bands). This is both due to an increase in the number of users worldwide and existing users demanding more bandwidth. Therefore, current research is focussed on using the available telecommunication spectrum more efficiently. To this end, coherent communication systems are being developed. Advanced coherent modulation schemes can be quite complex in terms of the number and array of devices required for implementation. In order to make these systems viable both logistically and commercially, photonic integration is required. In traditional DWDM systems, arrayed waveguide gratings (AWG) are used to both multiplex and demultiplex the multi-wavelength signal involved. AWGs are used widely as they allow filtering of the many DWDM wavelengths simultaneously. However, when moving to coherent telecommunication systems such as coherent optical frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) smaller FSR ranges are required from the AWG. This increases the size of the device which is counter to the miniaturisation which integration is trying to achieve. Much work was done with active filters during the 1980s. This involved using a laser device (usually below threshold) to allow selective wavelength filtering of input signals. By using more complicated cavity geometry devices such as distributed feedback (DFB) and sampled grating distributed Bragg gratings (SG-DBR) narrowband filtering is achievable with high suppression (>30 dB) of spurious wavelengths. The active nature of the devices also means that, through carrier injection, the index can be altered resulting in tunability of the filter. Used above threshold, active filters become useful in filtering coherent combs. Through injection locking, the coherence of the filtered wavelengths with the original comb source is retained. This gives active filters potential application in coherent communication system as demultiplexers. This work will focus on the use of slotted Fabry-Pérot (SFP) semiconductor lasers as active filters. Experiments were carried out to ensure that SFP lasers were useful as tunable active filters. In all experiments in this work the SFP lasers were operated above threshold and so injection locking was the mechanic by which the filters operated. Performance of the lasers under injection locking was examined using both single wavelength and coherent comb injection. In another experiment two discrete SFP lasers were used simultaneously to demultiplex a two-line coherent comb. The relative coherence of the comb lines was retained after demultiplexing. After showing that SFP lasers could be used to successfully demultiplex coherent combs a photonic integrated circuit was designed and fabricated. This involved monolithic integration of a MMI power splitter with an array of single facet SFP lasers. This device was tested much in the same way as the discrete devices. The integrated device was used to successfully demultiplex a two line coherent comb signal whilst retaining the relative coherence between the filtered comb lines. A series of modelling systems were then employed in order to understand the resonance characteristics of the fabricated devices, and to understand their performance under injection locking. Using this information, alterations to the SFP laser designs were made which were theoretically shown to provide improved performance and suitability for use in filtering coherent comb signals.

Voltage properties of optically injected long wavelength VCSELs: Theory and experiment

Future high speed communications networks will transmit data predominantly over optical fibres. As consumer and enterprise computing will remain the domain of electronics, the electro-optical conversion will get pushed further downstream towards the end user. Consequently, efficient tools are needed for this conversion and due to many potential advantages, including low cost and high output powers, long wavelength Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) are a viable option. Drawbacks, such as broader linewidths than competing options, can be mitigated through the use of additional techniques such as Optical Injection Locking (OIL) which can require significant expertise and expensive equipment. This thesis addresses these issues by removing some of the experimental barriers to achieving performance increases via remote OIL. Firstly, numerical simulations of the phase and the photon and carrier numbers of an OIL semiconductor laser allowed the classification of the stable locking phase limits into three distinct groups. The frequency detuning of constant phase values (ø) was considered, in particular ø = 0 where the modulation response parameters were shown to be independent of the linewidth enhancement factor, α. A new method to estimate α and the coupling rate in a single experiment was formulated. Secondly, a novel technique to remotely determine the locked state of a VCSEL based on voltage variations of 2mV−30mV during detuned injection has been developed which can identify oscillatory and locked states. 2D & 3D maps of voltage, optical and electrical spectra illustrate corresponding behaviours. Finally, the use of directly modulated VCSELs as light sources for passive optical networks was investigated by successful transmission of data at 10 Gbit/s over 40km of single mode fibre (SMF) using cost effective electronic dispersion compensation to mitigate errors due to wavelength chirp. A widely tuneable MEMS-VCSEL was established as a good candidate for an externally modulated colourless source after a record error free transmission at 10 Gbit/s over 50km of SMF across a 30nm single mode tuning range. The ability to remotely set the emission wavelength using the novel methods developed in this thesis was demonstrated.