Dilute nitride semiconductors : band structure, scattering and high field transport

The substitution of a small fraction x of nitrogen atoms, for the group V elements in conventional III-V semiconductors such as GaAs and GaSb strongly perturbs the conduction band of the host semiconductor. In this thesis we investigate the effects of nitrogen states on the band dispersion, carrier scattering and mobility of dilute nitride alloys. In the supercell model we solve the single particle Hamiltonian for a very large supercell containing randomly placed nitrogen. This model predicts a gap in the density of states of GaNxAs1−x, where this gap is filled in the Green’s function model. Therefore we develop a self-consistent Green’s function (SCGF) approach, which provides excellent agreement with supercell calculations and reveals a gap in the DOS, in contrast with the results of previous non-self-consistent Green’s function calculations. However, including the distribution of N states destroys this gap, as seen in experiment. We then examine the high field transport of carriers by solving the steadystate Boltzmann transport equation and find that it is necessary to include the full distribution of N levels in order to account for the small, low-field mobility and the absence of a negative differential velocity regime observed experimentally with increasing x. Overall the results account well for a wide range of experimental data. We also investigate the band structure, scattering and mobility of carriers by finding the poles of the SCGF, which gives lower carrier mobility for GaNxAs1−x, compared to those already calculated, in better agreement with experiments. The calculated optical absorption spectra for InyGa1−yNxAs1−x and GaNxSb1−x using the SCGF agree well with the experimental data, confirming the validity of this approach to study the band structure of these materials.

The operation of multiquantum-well barriers

The multiquantum barrier (MQB), proposed by Iga et al in 1986, has been shown by several researchers to be an effective structure for improving the operating characteristics of laser diodes. These improvements include a reduction in the laser threshold current and increased characteristic temperatures. The operation of the MQB has been described as providing an increased barrier to electron overflow by reflecting high energy electrons trying to escape from the active region of the laser.This is achieved in a manner analogous to a Bragg reflector in optics. This thesis presents an investigation of the effectiveness of the MQB as an electron reflector. Numerical models have been developed for calculating the electron reflection due to MQB. Novel optical and electrical characterisation techniques have been used to try to measure an increase in barrier height due to the MQB in AlGaInP.It has been shown that the inclusion of MQB structures in bulk double heterostructure visible laser diodes can halve the threshold current above room temperature and the characteristic temperature of these lasers can be increased by up to 20K.These improvements are shown to occur in visible laser diodes even with the inclusion of theoretically ineffective MQB structures, hence the observed improvement in the characteristics of the laser diodes described above cannot be uniquely attributed to an increased barrier height due to enhance electron reflection. It is proposed here that the MQB improves the performance of laser diodes by proventing the diffusion of zinc into the active region of the laser. It is also proposed that the trapped zinc in the MQB region of the laser diode locally increases the p-type doping bringing the quasi-Fermi level for holes closer to the valence band edge thus increasing the barrier to electron overflow in the conduction band.

Reactivity of sub 1 nm supported clusters: (TiO2)(n) clusters supported on rutile TiO2 (110)

Metal oxide clusters of sub-nm dimensions dispersed on a metal oxide support are an important class of catalytic materials for a number of key chemical reactions, showing enhanced reactivity over the corresponding bulk oxide. In this paper we present the results of a density functional theory study of small sub-nm TiO2 clusters, Ti2O4, Ti3O6 and Ti4O8 supported on the rutile (110) surface. We find that all three clusters adsorb strongly with adsorption energies ranging from -3 eV to -4.5 eV. The more stable adsorption structures show a larger number of new Ti-O bonds formed between the cluster and the surface. These new bonds increase the coordination of cluster Ti and O as well as surface oxygen, so that each has more neighbours. The electronic structure shows that the top of the valence band is made up of cluster derived states, while the conduction band is made up of Ti 3d states from the surface, resulting in a reduction of the effective band gap and spatial separation of electrons and holes after photon absorption, which shows their potential utility in photocatalysis. To examine reactivity, we study the formation of oxygen vacancies in the cluster-support system. The most stable oxygen vacancy sites on the cluster show formation energies that are significantly lower than in bulk TiO2, demonstrating the usefulness of this composite system for redox catalysis.

Development of inversion-mode and junctionless Indium-Gallium-Arsenide MOSFETs

This PhD covers the development of planar inversion-mode and junctionless Al2O3/In0.53Ga0.47As metal-oxidesemiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). An implant activation anneal was developed for the formation of the source and drain (S/D) of the inversionmode MOSFET. Fabricated inversion-mode devices were used as test vehicles to investigate the impact of forming gas annealing (FGA) on device performance. Following FGA, the devices exhibited a subthreshold swing (SS) of 150mV/dec., an ION/IOFF of 104 and the transconductance, drive current and peak effective mobility increased by 29%, 25% and 15%, respectively. An alternative technique, based on the fitting of the measured full-gate capacitance vs gate voltage using a selfconsistent Poisson-Schrödinger solver, was developed to extract the trap energy profile across the full In0.53Ga0.47As bandgap and beyond. A multi-frequency inversion-charge pumping approach was proposed to (1) study the traps located at energy levels aligned with the In0.53Ga0.47As conduction band and (2) separate the trapped charge and mobile charge contributions. The analysis revealed an effective mobility (μeff) peaking at ~2850cm2/V.s for an inversion-charge density (Ninv) = 7*1011cm2 and rapidly decreasing to ~600cm2/V.s for Ninv = 1*1013 cm2, consistent with a μeff limited by surface roughness scattering. Atomic force microscopy measurements confirmed a large surface roughness of 1.95±0.28nm on the In0.53Ga0.47As channel caused by the S/D activation anneal. In order to circumvent the issue relative to S/D formation, a junctionless In0.53Ga0.47As device was developed. A digital etch was used to thin the In0.53Ga0.47As channel and investigate the impact of channel thickness (tInGaAs) on device performance. Scaling of the SS with tInGaAs was observed for tInGaAs going from 24 to 16nm, yielding a SS of 115mV/dec. for tInGaAs = 16nm. Flat-band μeff values of 2130 and 1975cm2/V.s were extracted on devices with tInGaAs of 24 and 20nm, respectively

Giant piezoresistance in silicon-germanium alloys

We use first-principles electronic structure methods to show that the piezoresistive strain gauge factor of single-crystalline bulk n-type silicon-germanium alloys at carefully controlled composition can reach values of G = 500, three times larger than that of silicon, the most sensitive such material used in industry today. At cryogenic temperatures of 4 K we find gauge factors of G = 135 000, 13 times larger than that observed in Si whiskers. The improved piezoresistance is achieved by tuning the scattering of carriers between different (Delta and L) conduction band valleys by controlling the alloy composition and strain configuration.

Giant enhancement of n-type carrier mobility in highly strained germanium nanostructures

First-principles electronic structure methods are used to predict the rate of n-type carrier scattering due to phonons in highly-strained Ge. We show that strains achievable in nanoscale structures, where Ge becomes a direct bandgap semiconductor, cause the phonon-limited mobility to be enhanced by hundreds of times that of unstrained Ge, and over a thousand times that of Si. This makes highly tensile strained Ge a most promising material for the construction of channels in CMOS devices, as well as for Si-based photonic applications. Biaxial (001) strain achieves mobility enhancements of 100 to 1000 with strains over 2%. Low temperature mobility can be increased by even larger factors. Second order terms in the deformation potential of the Gamma valley are found to be important in this mobility enhancement. Although they are modified by shifts in the conduction band valleys, which are caused by carrier quantum confinement, these mobility enhancements persist in strained nanostructures down to sizes of 20 nm.

Photocatalytic activities of tin(IV) oxide surface-modified titanium(IV) dioxide show a strong sensitivity to the TiO 2 crystal form

Surface modification of rutile TiO2 with extremely small SnO2 clusters gives rise to a great increase in its UV light activity for degradation of model organic water pollutants, while the effect is much smaller for anatase TiO2. This crystal form sensitivity is rationalized in terms of the difference in the electronic modification of TiO2 through the interfacial Sn−O−Ti bonds. The increase in the density of states near the conduction band minimum of rutile by hybridization with the SnO2 cluster levels intensifies the light absorption, but this is not seen with modified anatase. The electronic transition from the valence band to the conduction band causes the bulk-to-surface interfacial electron transfer to enhance charge separation. Further, electrons relaxed to the conduction minimum are smoothly transferred to O2 due to the action of the SnO2 species as an electron transfer promoter.

Loading effect in copper(II) oxide cluster-surface-modified titanium(IV) oxide on visible- and UV-light activities

Cu(acac)2 is chemisorbed on TiO2 particles [P-25 (anatase/rutile = 4/1 w/w), Degussa] via coordination by surface Ti–OH groups without elimination of the acac ligand. Post-heating of the Cu(acac)2-adsorbed TiO2 at 773 K yields molecular scale copper(II) oxide clusters on the surface (CuO/TiO2). The copper loading amount (Γ/Cu ions nm–2) is controlled in a wide range by the Cu(acac)2 concentration and the chemisorption–calcination cycle number. Valence band (VB) X-ray photoelectron and photoluminescence spectroscopy indicated that the VB maximum of TiO2 rises up with increasing Γ, while vacant midgap levels are generated. The surface modification gives rise to visible-light activity and concomitant significant increase in UV-light activity for the degradation of 2-naphthol and p-cresol. Prolonging irradiation time leads to the decomposition to CO2, which increases in proportion to irradiation time. The photocatalytic activity strongly depends on the loading, Γ, with an optimum value of Γ for the photocatalytic activity. Electrochemical measurements suggest that the surface CuO clusters promote the reduction of adsorbed O2. First principles density functional theory simulations clearly show that, at Γ < 1, unoccupied Cu 3d levels are generated in the midgap region, and at Γ > 1, the VB maximum rises and the unoccupied Cu 3d levels move to the conduction band minimum of TiO2. These results suggest that visible-light excitation of CuO/TiO2 causes the bulk-to-surface interfacial electron transfer at low coverage and the surface-to-bulk interfacial electron transfer at high coverage. We conclude that the surface CuO clusters enhance the separation of photogenerated charge carriers by the interfacial electron transfer and the subsequent reduction of adsorbed O2 to achieve the compatibility of high levels of visible and UV-light activities.

A tight-binding analysis of the electronic properties of III-nitride semiconductors

This thesis divides into two distinct parts, both of which are underpinned by the tight-binding model. The first part covers our implementation of the tight-binding model in conjunction with the Berry phase theory of electronic polarisation to probe the atomistic origins of spontaneous polarisation and piezoelectricity as well as attempting to accurately calculate the values and coefficients associated with these phenomena. We first develop an analytic model for the polarisation of a one-dimensional linear chain of atoms. We compare the zincblende and ideal wurtzite structures in terms of effective charges, spontaneous polarisation and piezoelectric coefficients, within a first nearest neighbour tight-binding model. We further compare these to real wurtzite structures and conclude that accurate quantitative results are beyond the scope of this model but qualitative trends can still be described. The second part of this thesis deals with implementing the tight-binding model to investigate the effect of local alloy fluctuations in bulk AlGaN alloys and InGaN quantum wells. We calculate the band gap evolution of Al1_xGaxN across the full composition range and compare it to experiment as well as fitting bowing parameters to the band gap as well as to the conduction band and valence band edges. We also investigate the wavefunction character of the valence band edge to determine the composition at which the optical polarisation switches in Al1_xGaxN alloys. Finally, we examine electron and hole localisation in InGaN quantum wells. We show how the built-in field localises the carriers along the c-axis and how local alloy fluctuations strongly localise the highest hole states in the c-plane, while the electrons remain delocalised in the c-plane. We show how this localisation affects the charge density overlap and also investigate the effect of well width fluctuations on the localisation of the electrons.

A dual-band antenna enabling improved quality of service in multi-radio wireless sensor applications in indoor environments

Science Foundation Ireland (CSET - Centre for Science, Engineering and Technology, Grant No. 07/CE/11147)

A novel and miniaturized 433/868MHz multi-band wireless sensor platform for body sensor network applications

Body Sensor Network (BSN) technology is seeing a rapid emergence in application areas such as health, fitness and sports monitoring. Current BSN wireless sensors typically operate on a single frequency band (e.g. utilizing the IEEE 802.15.4 standard that operates at 2.45GHz) employing a single radio transceiver for wireless communications. This allows a simple wireless architecture to be realized with low cost and power consumption. However, network congestion/failure can create potential issues in terms of reliability of data transfer, quality-of-service (QOS) and data throughput for the sensor. These issues can be especially critical in healthcare monitoring applications where data availability and integrity is crucial. The addition of more than one radio has the potential to address some of the above issues. For example, multi-radio implementations can allow access to more than one network, providing increased coverage and data processing as well as improved interoperability between networks. A small number of multi-radio wireless sensor solutions exist at present but require the use of more than one radio transceiver devices to achieve multi-band operation. This paper presents the design of a novel prototype multi-radio hardware platform that uses a single radio transceiver. The proposed design allows multi-band operation in the 433/868MHz ISM bands and this, together with its low complexity and small form factor, make it suitable for a wide range of BSN applications.