Breeding system can affect the offspring sex ratio in Syrian hamsters

Nulliparous female Syrian hamsters were used to investigate the effect of two different breeding systems on the fertility of the female Syrian hamster. We hypothesized that females submitted to a harem system (HS) would deliver smaller and more female-biased litters than in a monogamic system. Ten female and 10 adult male hamsters housed individually (G1) were kept in a monogamic temporary breeding system, while 10 females and five males (G2) were submitted to HS with two females and a male permanently housed together since female weaning. Females from G1 and G2 delivered, respectively, 47 and 50 litters, and produced 364 (G1) and 383 (G2) weaned pups without any difference in litter size, mean weight of weaned pups and body condition of dams. Interparturition intervals were shorter and the percentage of male pups per litter was higher in the HS possibly as a result of different endocrine conditions provided by different breeding systems. Besides providing evidence that housing conditions can influence the sex of hamster offspring, our findings suggest a mechanism for the non-random distribution of male and female pups in hamster litters.

The vulnerable male, or the sex ratio among fetal deaths in Brazil

Some studies indicate the existence of innate male vulnerabilities, especially during the perinatal period. The current study is a cross-sectional analysis of fetal mortality in Brazil according to sex from 2000 to 2009, stratified by maternal characteristics (age, schooling, and gestational age), using Ministry of Health data (DATASUS). The analysis included all fetal deaths from 2000 to 2009, except when the sex of the fetus was not recorded. The male/female sex ratio (SR) for all fetal deaths was 1.188. Analysis of maternal characteristics showed that the SR was statistically higher (p < 0.01) in mothers that were younger (10-14 years), had no formal schooling, and with gestational age < 22 weeks. The study showed a statistically higher-than-expected SR (p < 0.01) for 13 underlying causes of death and a lower SR for two others. The results suggest a potential innate male vulnerability.

No evidence of predation causing female-biased sex ratios in marine pelagic copepods

Although sex ratios close to unity are expected in dioecious species, biased sex ratios are common in nature. It is essential to understand causes of skewed sex ratios in situ, as they can lead to mate limitation and have implications for the success of natural populations. Female-skewed sex ratios are commonly observed in copepods in situ. Here we discuss the challenges of copepod sex ratio research and provide a critical review of factors determining copepod sex ratios, focusing on 2 main objectives. The first is a critique of the male predation theory, which is currently the main process thought to be responsible for female-skewed sex ratios. It assumes that males have higher mortality because of increased vulnerability to predation during their search for mates. We show that there is little support for the male predation theory, that sex ratios skewed toward females occur in the absence of predation, that sex ratios are not related to predation pressure, and that where sex-skewed predation does occur, it is biased toward females. Our second objective is to suggest alternative hypotheses regarding the determination of sex ratios. We demonstrate that environmental factors, environmental sex determination and sex change have strong effects on copepod sex ratios, and suggest that differential physiological longevity of males and females may be more important in determining sex ratios than previously thought. We suggest that copepod sex ratios are the result of a mixture of factors.

Female-biased sex ratios in marine pelagic copepods: Response to Hirst et al. (2013)

Hirst et al. (2013; Mar Ecol Prog Ser 489:297-298) suggest that Gusmão et al. (2013; Mar Ecol Prog Ser 482:279-298) misinterpreted the findings of Hirst et al. (2010; Limnol Oceanogr 55:2193-2206). They restate that the major factors determining sex ratio in pelagic copepods act upon the adult stage, but they place less emphasis on the idea that predation on male copepods is a likely determinant, and highlight the role of physiological longevity. Here we reconsider the data and confirm our position that at present there is limited evidence to support the theory of male-skewed predation. However, we agree that sex determination is governed by a combination of factors, with the relative emphasis being the main point of contention between the 2 parties.

Reproductive migration and population dynamics of the blue crab Callinectes danae in an estuary in southeastern Brazil

Portunid crabs are an important resource in estuaries, and require appropriate management to guarantee their long-term availability. We investigated the population dynamics and reproduction of Callinectes danae in the Estuarine-Bay Complex of Sao Vicente, Sao Paulo, Brazil, to provide basic biological information for public policies for the management of this fishery. Monthly samples were obtained from March 2007 to February 2008 on eight transects, four in the estuary and four in the bay. A total of 2261 specimens (403 males, 1288 females, of which 570 were ovigerous) were collected. Males were significantly larger than females, and the size-frequency distribution was unimodal for males, females and ovigerous females. The sex ratio was nearly always skewed toward females (M:F - 1:4.6). C. danae showed seasonal-continuous reproduction, with high reproductive activity in the warmer season. C. danae breeds in the estuarine-bay complex, with males and juvenile females concentrated in the estuary. After copulation, fertilized females migrate to the estuary entrance and the bay, where ovigerous females are commonly found spawning in high-salinity areas. Therefore, to manage this important economic resource, both the estuary and the bay should be considered for protection, but special attention should be given to the estuary entrance during the summer months, when ovigerous females concentrate.

Relative abundance and population biology of the non-indigenous crab Charybdis hellerii (Crustacea: Brachyura: Portunidae) in a southwestern Atlantic estuary-bay complex

Invasive species are potential threats to biodiversity, especially if they become established and outnumber native species. In this study, a population of the non-indigenous crab Charybdis hellerii was analyzed in an estuary-bay complex on the southeastern Brazilian coast, with respect to its abundance relative to sympatric native brachyuran species, as well as the size structure, sexual maturity, sex ratio, frequency of mutilation, reproductive period, and development of the reproductive system. Crabs were sampled monthly both in the intertidal zone of rocky shores and on sublittoral soft-bottom. Nine species were recorded on the rocky shores, where C. hellerii was the second most abundant species; only three individuals of C. hellerii were collected in the sublittoral samples. This population of C. hellerii showed a unimodal size structure composed mainly of mature individuals; males were larger than females, and the sex ratio was skewed toward males (3.1:1). About 46.9% of the individuals (75 of 160 crabs) had mutilated or regenerating appendages, more frequent in males (56.8%) than in females (28.2%), which may reflect both inter- and intraspecific agonistic interactions. A continuous reproductive pattern is suggested for this population, although ovigerous females occurred unevenly during the year, with 58.82% of them being collected in winter. There was evidence of multiple spawning, since the ovigerous females with an initial egg mass showed mature ovaries as well as seminal receptacles filled with sperm. C. hellerii is well established in the estuary-bay complex, but is concentrated in intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky shores, where it may compete with and replace other species such as the portunid Cronius ruber. This study also highlights the importance of systematic monitoring studies to evaluate the effects of the introduction of non-indigenous species on ecologically similar natives.

Reproductive biology of the smooth butterfly ray Gymnura micrura

This study provides the first detailed information on the reproductive biology of the smooth butterfly ray Gymnura micrura. A total of 905 individuals were sampled, 377 of which were used for the reproductive study. Juveniles accounted for 75% of the sample, but all life cycle stages were present in the study area. The disc width at which 50% were mature (WD50)was estimated at 269 and 405 mm for males and females, respectively. The WD50V(based on the onset of vitellogenesis) was estimated at 359 mm. Uterine fecundity (mean +/- s.d. = 3.8 +/- 1.3; range: 16) was positively correlated with female size. A 3564% gain in mean wet mass was observed from egg to full-term embryo in utero. Size at birth ranged from 135 to 175 mm WD (19.5 to 55.0 g), with a mean of 165.1 mm WD (43.3 g). The embryo sex ratio was not significantly different from 1:1. The ovaries of pregnant females were undergoing vitellogenesis during gestation, with females ready to ovulate soon after parturition. Gymnura micrura may have an asynchronous reproductive cycle, with females reproducing continuously throughout the year.

Mating behaviour, nympho-imaginal development and description of a new Mesabolivar species (Araneae: Pholcidae) from the Brazilian dry forest

A new species of Mesabolivar is described from Brazilian forests: Mesabolivar delclaroi. The mating behaviour, postembryonic development, number of egg sacs and eggs, birth rate, number of instars, developmental time until adulthood, sex ratio and size of cephalothorax (per instar) were recorded. The sexual behaviour was described and categorized into four steps: courtship, pre-copulation, copulation and post-copulation. After hatching, individuals presented five instars until maturity. The mean number of eggs (42 +/- 16.6) and live births (31.5 +/- 3.4) of the first egg sac were significantly greater than that of a second one (23.8 +/- 3.8, and 19.25 +/- 3.9, respectively). The developmental time from birth to adulthood (130.8 +/- 9.6 days) did not differ significantly between egg sacs produced (128.61 +/- 11.1). The size of the cephalothorax did not differ among adults or between sexes. The sex ratio revealed a shift in favour of females (4: 3).

Spiroplasma in Drosophila melanogaster Populations: Prevalence, Male-Killing, Molecular Identification, and No Association with Wolbachia

Spiroplasma endosymbionts are maternally transmitted bacteria that may kill infected sons resulting in the production of female-biased broods. The prevalence of male killers varies considerably both between and within species. Here, we evaluate the spatial and temporal status of male-killing and non-male-killing Spiroplasma infection in three Brazilian populations of Drosophila melanogaster, nearly a decade after the first occurrence report for this species. The incidence of the male-killing Spiroplasma ranged from close to 0 to 17.7 % (so far the highest estimate for a Drosophila species) with a suggestion of temporal decline in a population. We also found non-male-killing Spiroplasma coexisting in one population at lower prevalence (3-5 %), and we did not detect it in the other two. This may be taken as a suggestion of a spreading advantage conferred by the male-killing strategy. Sequencing two loci, we identified the phylogenetic position of Spiroplasma strains from the three localities, showing that all strains group closely in the poulsonii clade. Due to intensive sampling effort, we were able to test the association between Spiroplasma infections and another widespread endosymbiont, Wolbachia, whose prevalence ranged from 81.8 to 100 %. The prevalence of Wolbachia did not differ between Spiroplasma-infected and uninfected strains in our largest sample nor were the prevalences of the two endosymbionts associated across localities.

Gregarious behavior of two species of Neotropical harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones: Gonyleptidae)

We present the first record and description of the gregarious behavior of the Neotropical harvestmen Serracutisoma proximum (Mello-Leitao 1922) and Serracutisoma spelaeum (Mello-Leitao 1933) (Opiliones: Gonyleptidae: Goniosomatinae) (DaSilva & Gnaspini 2010). We followed and described the pattern of these aggregations over a period of 17 months in a cave in southeastern Brazil. Individuals of the two species aggregated with both conspecifics and heterospecifics during the non-reproductive season (i.e., from October to March, the cool and dry season). Aggregations contained up to 81 individuals, usually with a female-biased adult sex ratio. Multispecific aggregations were usually composed mainly of representatives of one of the two species, suggesting that although these species also aggregate with heterospecifics, there is a preference for aggregating with conspecifics. This study provides novel information on the social behavior of harvestmen, specifically regarding the composition of multispecific aggregations.

Variance Effective Population Size for Dioecious Species

The concept of effective population size (N(e)) is an important measure of representativeness in many areas. In this research, we consider the statistical properties of the number of contributed gametes under practical situations by adapting Crow and Denninston's (1988) N(e) formulas for dioecious species. Three sampling procedures were considered. In all circumstances, results show that as the offspring sex ratio (r) deviates from 0.5, N(e) values become smaller, and the efficiency of gametic control for increasing N(e) is reduced. For finite populations, where all individuals are potentially functional parents, the reduction in N(e) due to an unequal sex ratio can be compensated for through female gametic control when 0.28 <= r <= 0.72. This outcome is important when r is unknown. When only a fraction of the individuals in a population is taken for reproduction, N(e) is meaningful only if the size of the reference population is clearly defined. Gametic control is a compensating factor in accession regeneration when the viability of the accession is around 70 or 75%. For germ-plasm collection, when parents are a very small fraction of the population, maximum N(e) will be approximately 47 and 57% of the total number of offspring sampled, with female gametic control, r varying between 0.3 and 0.5, and being constant over generations.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE SAILFIN DORY Zenopsis conchifer (LOWE, 1852) CAUGHT BY DEEP-SEA TRAWLING FISHERY OFF SOUTHERN BRAZIL

Biological aspects of sailfin dory, Zenopsis conchifer, were studied from 839 individuals obtained from deep-sea commercial bottom trawling off southern Brazil at depths up to 526 m in 2002 and 2003. Samples included fish from 101 mm Lt and 15 g up to 640 mm Lt and 2,9 g. The sex-ratio was 50% at 150 mm Lt and between 300-350 mm Lt, with females outnumbering males in the remaining size classes. Reproductive activity seems to peak between July and August ( austral winter). Size at attainment of 50% maturity (Lt(50)) was 311 mm Lt in females. The mean length and maturity of the specimens increased with depth, suggesting that larger fish concentrate in deeper waters.

Biological Characteristics and Thermal Requirements of the Biological Control Agent Telenomus remus (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) Reared on Eggs of Different Species of the Genus Spodoptera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The biological characteristics of Telenomus remus Nixon, 1937 (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) on eggs of Spodoptera albula (Walker, 1857); S. cosmioides Walker 1858, S. eridania (Cramer, 1782); and S. frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were evaluated under different temperatures (19, 22, 25, 28, 31, and 34 degrees C +/- 1 degrees C). The duration of the T remus egg-to-adult period on eggs of all four Spodoptera species and the longevity of adults of T. remus were both inversely proportional to the increase in temperature. Parasitoid emergence was higher than 80% at temperatures from 19 to 28 degrees C when the parasitoid was reared on eggs of S. eridania and S. frugiperda. Differently, when the parasitoid was reared on eggs of S. albula and S. cosmioides, T. remus emergence at rates of 80% or higher just occurred from 22 to 25 degrees C and at 22 degrees C, respectively. At 34 degrees C, this parameter was lower than 30% for T reams reared in all hosts. The sex ratio was 64-86% females, except for T. remus in S. cosmioides eggs at 34 C, in which temperature it was 39%. The estimated thermal requirements of T. remus, for the thermal constant (K) and the base temperature (T(base)), were: 125.39 DD and 15.139 degrees C; 125.56 DD and 14.912 degrees C; 142.98 DD and 14.197 degrees C; and 149.16 DD and 13.846 degrees C, for S. cosmioides, S. frugiperda, S. albula, and S. eridania, respectively. In general, T. remus showed good parasitism potential on all the hosts, although eggs of S. frugiperda, S. eridania, and S. albula proved to be the most suitable for mass rearing of T reams in the laboratory. Eggs of S. cosmioides are less suitable because of the lower parasitoid emergence observed at most of the temperatures with exception of 22 degrees C.

High Proportion of Male Faeces in Jaguar Populations

Faeces provide relevant biological information which includes, with the application of genetic techniques, the sex and identity of individuals that defecated, thus providing potentially useful data on the behaviour and ecology of individuals, as well as the dynamics and structure of populations. This paper presents estimates of the sex ratio of different felid species (jaguar, Panthera onca; puma, Puma concolor; and ocelot/margay, Leopardus pardalis/Leopardus wiedi) as observed in field collected faeces, and proposes several hypotheses that could explain the strikingly high proportion of faeces from male jaguars. The proportion of male and female faeces was estimated using a non-invasive faecal sampling method in 14 study areas in Mexico and Brazil. Faecal samples were genetically analysed to identify the species, the sex and the individual (the latter only for samples identified as belonging to jaguars). Considering the three species, 72.6% of faeces (n = 493) were from males; however, there were significant differences among them, with the proportion from males being higher for jaguars than for pumas and ocelots/margays. A male-bias was consistently observed in all study areas for jaguar faeces, but not for the other species. For jaguars the trend was the same when considering the number of individuals identified (n = 68), with an average of 4.2 +/- 0.56 faeces per male and 2.0 +/- 0.36 per female. The observed faecal marking patterns might be related to the behaviour of female jaguars directed toward protecting litters from males, and in both male and female pumas, to prevent interspecific aggressions from male jaguars. The hypothesis that there are effectively more males than females in jaguar populations cannot be discarded, which could be due to the fact that females are territorial and males are not, or a tendency for males to disperse into suboptimal areas for the species.

Mating Behavior of the Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

The mating behavior of the coffee berry borer, (Ferrari), was observed under laboratory conditions. Pairs of adult virgin male and female beetles were placed in the wells of a polystyrene microtiter plate, one pair per well. The mating activity of each pair was recorded for 24 h. The mating behavior of the coffee berry borer was similar to that of other Scolytinae and was clearly divided into precopulatory, copulatory and postcopulatory phases. The beetles started to mate within a few hours of emergence. Repeated mating occurred during the 24-hour period and increased in frequency with age. However, we cannot address multiple matings in , since we did not simulate the female-biased sex ratio of this species and the experimental design did not allow females to avoid additional mating attempts by males. In addition, further studies are necessary that focus on the effectiveness of sperm transmission and direct and indirect effects of multiple matings on the ei females and their offspring.