Biogeographic and diversification patterns of Neotropical Troidini butterflies (Papilionidae) support a museum model of diversity dynamics for Amazonia

Background: The temporal and geographical diversification of Neotropical insects remains poorly understood because of the complex changes in geological and climatic conditions that occurred during the Cenozoic. To better understand extant patterns in Neotropical biodiversity, we investigated the evolutionary history of three Neotropical swallowtail Troidini genera (Papilionidae). First, DNA-based species delimitation analyses were conducted to assess species boundaries within Neotropical Troidini using an enlarged fragment of the standard barcode gene. Molecularly delineated species were then used to infer a time-calibrated species-level phylogeny based on a three-gene dataset and Bayesian dating analyses. The corresponding chronogram was used to explore their temporal and geographical diversification through distinct likelihood-based methods. Results: The phylogeny for Neotropical Troidini was well resolved and strongly supported. Molecular dating and biogeographic analyses indicate that the extant lineages of Neotropical Troidini have a late Eocene (33-42 Ma) origin in North America. Two independent lineages (Battus and Euryades + Parides) reached South America via the GAARlandia temporary connection, and later became extinct in North America. They only began substantive diversification during the early Miocene in Amazonia. Macroevolutionary analysis supports the "museum model" of diversification, rather than Pleistocene refugia, as the best explanation for the diversification of these lineages. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that: (i) current Neotropical biodiversity may have originated ex situ; (ii) the GAARlandia bridge was important in facilitating invasions of South America; (iii) colonization of Amazonia initiated the crown diversification of these swallowtails; and (iv) Amazonia is not only a species-rich region but also acted as a sanctuary for the dynamics of this diversity. In particular, Amazonia probably allowed the persistence of old lineages and contributed to the steady accumulation of diversity over time with constant net diversification rates, a result that contrasts with previous studies on other South American butterflies.

Kerteszia subgenus of Anopheles associated with the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest:current knowledge and future challenges

Abstract Background The Atlantic rainforest ecosystem, where bromeliads are abundant, provides an excellent environment for Kerteszia species, because these anophelines use the axils of those plants as larval habitat. Anopheles (K.) cruzii and Anopheles (K.) bellator are considered the primary vectors of malaria in the Atlantic forest. Although the incidence of malaria has declined in some areas of the Atlantic forest, autochthonous cases are still registered every year, with Anopheles cruzii being considered to be a primary vector of both human and simian Plasmodium. Methods Recent publications that addressed ecological aspects that are important for understanding the involvement of Kerteszia species in the epidemiology of malaria in the Atlantic rainforest in the Neotropical Region were analysed. Conclusion The current state of knowledge about Kerteszia species in relation to the Atlantic rainforest ecosystem was discussed. Emphasis was placed on ecological characteristics related to epidemiological aspects of this group of mosquitoes. The main objective was to investigate biological aspects of the species that should be given priority in future studies.

Means to an end: Neotropical parrots manage to pull strings to meet their goals

Although parrots share with corvids and primates many of the traits believed to be associated with advanced cognitive processing, knowledge of parrot cognition is still limited to a few species, none of which are Neotropical. Here we examine the ability of three Neotropical parrot species (Blue-Fronted Amazons, Hyacinth and Lear`s macaws) to spontaneously solve a novel physical problem: the string-pulling test. The ability to pull up a string to obtain out-of-reach food has been often considered a cognitively complex task, as it requires the use of a sequence of actions never previously assembled, along with the ability to continuously monitor string, food and certain body movements. We presented subjects with pulling tasks where we varied the spatial relationship between the strings, the presence of a reward and the physical contact between the string and reward to determine whether (1) string-pulling is goal-oriented in these parrots, (2) whether the string is recognized as a means to obtain the reward and (3) whether subjects can visually determine the continuity between the string and the reward, selecting only those strings for which no physical gaps between string and reward were present. Our results show that some individuals of all species were able to use the string as a means to reach a specific goal, in this case, the retrieval of the food treat. Also, subjects from both macaw species were able to visually determine the presence of physical continuity between the string and reward, making their choices consistently with the recognition that no gaps should be present between the string and the reward. Our findings highlight the potential of this taxonomic group for the understanding of the underpinnings of cognition in evolutionarily distant groups such as birds and primates.

SOCIAL MONOGAMY AND BIPARENTAL CARE OF THE NEOTROPICAL SOUTHERN BAMBOO RAT (KANNABATEOMYS AMBLYONYX)

We analyzed social patterns indicative of the mating system and parental care in a population of the southern bamboo rat (Kannabateomys amblyonyx). This arboreal rodent feeds exclusively on bamboo stems and leaves. We conducted fieldwork from August 2003 to October 2004 in southern Brazil (30 degrees 20`-30 degrees 27`S, 50 degrees 50`-51 degrees 05`W), in patches of introduced Chinese bamboo (Bambusa tuldoides). We captured 18 individuals, 7 of which were adults that received radiotransmitters and were followed from 1 to 12 months. Another 5 animals (adults or subadults) received colored collars. We observed paternal care, delayed juvenile dispersal, and reduced degree of sexual dimorphism, all of which are traits typical of social monogamy. Mated males showed a direct parental behavioral repertoire similar to that of females (with the obvious exception of nursing), including grooming, huddling, and food provisioning. Potential monogamy in this species seems to be a flexible strategy linked to low density of bamboo patches. Females were confined to widely spaced., small home ranges, decreasing the possibility of male defense of and access to > 1 female. The arboreal habits of the species possibly increase the risk of inexperienced young falling from trees or else being depreciated when moving exposed through branches. This risk is probably reduced by the extensive biparental care observed, including the providing of low-energy plant food to young in the nest.

Key to the soldiers of Angularitermes Emerson with a new species from Brazilian Amazonia (Isoptera: Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae)

An identification key based on characters of the soldier caste is provided for species of Angularitermes. Soldiers of previously described species in the genus, A. clypeatus, A. nasutissimus, A. orestes, A. pinocchio and A. tiguassu, are illustrated along with a new species, Angularitermes coninasus, n. sp., that is described and illustrated from soldier and worker castes. Samples of the new species were collected from epigeal nests at the Brazilian Amazon rainforest. The soldier of A. coninasus, n. sp. is distinguished from its congeners by having a short conical frontal tube, much wider at its base.

Revision of the Neotropical termite genus Orthognathotermes Holmgren (Isoptera: Termitidae: Termitinae)

This is a taxonomic revision of the Neotropical genus Orthognathotermes Holmgren, 1910 (Termitidae, Termitinae), previously with nine species: O. aduncus, O. brevipilosus, O. gibberorum, O. heberi, O. humilis, O. insignis, O. macrocephalus, O. orthognathus and O. wheeleri. We redescribe these species and describe six new species: O. longilamina sp. nov., O. mirim sp. nov., O. okeyma sp. nov., O. pilosus sp. nov., O. tubesauassu sp. nov., and O. uncimandibularis sp. nov., based on soldiers and, when possible, imago castes along with the first description of imagos of O. wheeleri and O. heberi. We present a key for soldier identification and distribution maps for all species.

A taxonomic revision of the Neotropical myrmicine ant genus Lachnomyrmex wheeler (Hymenoptera : Formicidae)

The Neotropical ant genus Lachnomyrmex Wheeler, 1910 is revised for the first time. A revised generic description is provided for workers and gynes; males remain unknown. Morphological patterns combined with geographical data led to the recognition of 16 species, of which 10 are here described as new: L. amazonicus sp. n., L. fernandezi sp. n., L. grandis Fernandez & Baena, L. haskinsi Smith, L. lattkei sp. n., L. longinodus Fernandez & Baena, L. longinoi sp. n., L. mackayi sp. n., L. nordestinus sp. n., L. pilosus Weber, L. laticeps sp. n., L. platynodus sp. n., L. plaumanni Borgmeier, L. regularis sp. n., L. scrobiculatus Wheeler, and L. victori sp. n. The gynes of L. grandis, L. haskinsi, and L. pilosus are described for the first time. Illustrated identification keys for workers, distribution maps, and high resolution illustrations are supplied for all species. Some Lachnomyrmex species are relatively common in the leaf-litter of submontane wet forests in Central and South America; others remain known by very few individuals. The relatively small and apparently monogynic Lachnomyrmex colonies inhabit small nests in the ground, among rotten leaves and inside fallen logs. Workers generally forage alone on the ground or within the leaf litter, but have been recorded also on tree trunks, and apparently do not recruit nestmates.

Revisionary studies on the enigmatic neotropical ant genus Stegomyrmex Emery, 1912 (Hymenoptera : Formicidae : Myrmicinae), with the description of two new species

The recent increase in leaf litter ants sampling effort in Neotropical wet forests has revealed new and interesting records of the highly specialized myrmicine ant genus Stegomyrmex Emery, previously considered as extremely rare. We present a modified diagnosis for the genus and describe Stegomyrmex bensoni n. sp. and S. olindae n. sp., based on, respectively, workers, males, and gyne (central-north Brazil) and on a single worker (northern Brazil). Stegomyrmex vizottoi Diniz (southeastern Brazil) is redescribed and compared with S. olindae n. sp.; these species present significant differences in size, sculpturation, and sting apparatus morphology. The males of S. vizottoi are described for the first time. A key for workers and queens and a distribution map for the five know Stegomyrmex species are provided.

A new species of the neotropical catfish genus Trichomycterus (Siluriformes : Trichomycteridae) representing a new body shape for the family

Trichomycterus crassicaudatus is described as a new species from the Rio Iguacu basin in southern Brazil. The new species has an exceptionally deep posterior region of the body (caudal peduncle depth 22.8-25.4% SL), resulting in an overall shape which distinguishes it at once from all other members of the Trichomycteridae. The caudal fin of the species is broad-based and forked, a shape also distinguishing it from all other species in the family. A number of autapomorphic modifications of T. crassicaudatus are associated with the deepening of the caudal region, including an elongation of the hemal and neural spines of the vertebrae at the middle of the caudal peduncle. Phylogenetic relationships of the new species are yet unresolved, but it shares a similar color pattern and a thickening of caudal-fin procurrent rays with T. stawiarski, a poorly-known species also from the Rio Iguacu basin. Coloration and body shape also include similarities with T. lewi from Venezuela.

Revision of the Neotropical robber fly genus Cnodalomyia Hull (Diptera, Asilidae, Asilinae) with description of two new species from Brazil

The genus Cnodalomyia includes only two Brazilian species: C. obtusa Hull, 1962 and C. catarinensis Lamas and Mellinger, 2008. Studying material deposited in the Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de Sao Paulo (MZUSP), the authors found a long series of unidentified specimens of the genus, some of which are specimens of C. obtusa labelled with the same data as the type series as well as other specimens from different localities, representing an enlargement of the known geographic records of the species. This material, together with the types of C. catarinensis, enables this revision. A redescription of the genus and of its type species, C. obtusa, including descriptions and illustrations of its spermathecae and egg, until now never described, the description and illustration of two new species (C. artigasi sp. nov. and C. papaveroi sp. nov.), the diagnosis and egg description of C. catarinensis and an identification key to all included species are presented herein.

Revision of the Neotropical genus Carrerapyrgota Aczel (Diptera, Pyrgotidae) with the description of two new species

The Neotropical genus Carrerapyrgota Aczel is restricted to the South America (Brazil and Argentina). The genus is composed of two previously described species, which are revised herein: C. miliaria Aczel and C. personata (Lutz & Lima). Two new Brazilian species are described: C. aczeli from Sao Paulo and C. bernardii from Bahia. Illustrations of the external morphology of adults and male and female terminalia are also included. An identification key to the species is presented, as well as a brief discussion of the biology and distribution of the genus.

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF CAMAENID FROM THE AMAZON RAINFOREST, BRAZIL (PULMONATA, HELICOIDEA)

Olympus nimbus, new genus and species, is described for the Amazon Rainforest, collected at Neblina Peak, Amazonas, Brazil. The taxon is clearly related to the camaenid genus Solaropsis because of conchological and anatomical attributes. However, the new taxon differs from its allies mainly in its smaller size (about 15 mm), its tall spire (almost as tall as wide), its narrow umbilicus, in lacking a bursa copulatrix diverticulum and a clear penial epiphallus, and by its complex internal penial organization. This paper also discusses the state of current knowledge of the South American Camaenidae.

Phylogeny and revision of the Neotropical bee genus Rhectomia s.l. Moure (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Augochlorini)

This paper revises the bees currently considered to belong to the genus Rhectomia s.l. and proposes a species phylogeny based on morphological characters, using other Corynurina as outgroups. The results indicate that Rhinocorynura Schrottky renders Rhectomia s.l. paraphyletic. Consequently, Corynurella is removed from synonymy with Rhectomia s.s., and Paracorynurella gen.n. is proposed. The topology among these genera is: outgroup [(Rhectomia s.s. + Rhinocorynura) (Paracorynurella gen.n. + Corynurella)]. Nine species are assigned to Corynurella: C. brokopondoi sp.n., C. caerulea sp.n., C. cognata sp.n., C. decora sp.n., C. harrisoni (Engel), C. mourei Eickwort, C. nigra sp.n., C. singularis sp.n. and C. triangulata sp.n. Three new species are described in Paracorynurella gen.n.: type species P. betoi sp.n., P. excavata sp.n., P. reticulata sp.n.; P. difficillima (Ducke) comb.n. is transferred from Rhinocorynura. Three species are recognized in Rhectomia s.s.: R. catarina sp.n., R. liebherri Engel and R. pumilla Moure. The male of R. liebherri is described for the first time. Keys for the identification of the genera and species are provided.

Revision of the Neotropical genus Yagra Oiticica (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)

The Castniidae, or butterfly moths, are characteristically colourful diurnal moths, distributed throughout the tropics except in Africa. The Neotropical representatives forage almost exclusively on monocotyledonous plants and many species are crop pests with more than 60% of the Neotropical castniids found or endemic in Brazil. Research studies that focus on taxonomy, systematics, and morphology of this group are scarce. In this study, Yagra Oiticica, a small genus restricted to south-eastern South America, is revised and the diagnostic morphological characters of male and female genitalia are illustrated. This research is part of long-term study on the Castniidae for future phylogenetic analysis.