Preserving Iron Gall Ink Objects in Collections in South and Central America and the Caribbean, Part 1: Assessing Preservation Needs of Ink-Corroded Materials

Most museums, libraries, and archives throughout the world have to deal with paper damaged by iron gall ink. For more than a decade international research has been devoted to the topic in an attempt to provide practical treatments for objects and formulate guidelines for the preservation of iron gall ink collections. A working group of conservators in South and Central America and the Caribbean have developed a program to disseminate research findings, collect data about the condition of iron gall ink collections in their countries and identify imminent training needs. The goal of this project is to combine the latest research with existing and acceptable conservation practices and share information about risk management, proper housing, examination and treatment of iron gall ink inscribed artefacts-at risk. Communications among colleagues were established to learn more about the current resources available in collections from various countries.

A new species of Obtusitermes (Isoptera, Termitidae, Nasutitermitinae) from South America

Obtusitermes Snyder is a genus endemic to the Neotropics, restricted to northern South America and southern Central America. Obtusitermes panamae Snyder was described from Quipo, Panama. Herein, we describe Obtusitermes formosulus, n. sp., from Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago, based on the dimorphic soldier and polymorphic worker. These descriptions provide strong evidence that Parvitermes bacchanalis Mathews should not be included in Obtusitermes.

Seven new species of Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) from South America with the proposal of three new genera

The following new species are described - Cerambycinae, Sydacini: Sydax flechtmanni sp. nov. from Brazil (São Paulo); Eburiini: Ebrodacrys biffipradorum sp. nov. from Brazil (Roraima); - Lamiinae, Pteropliini: Ataxia piauiensis sp. nov. from Brazil (Piuaí); Calliini: Amucallia carbonaria sp. nov. from French Guiana; A. citrina sp. nov. from Guiana. Also in Lamiinae, two new genera of Onciderini are proposed. Ubytyra gen. nov., type species U. tuberosa sp. nov. from Peru (Junin) e Japi gen. nov., type species J. duartei sp. nov., from Brazil (São Paulo); Ubytyra gen. nov. can be distinguished by the sides of prothorax with long central spine rounded at apex, and this new feature among Onciderini is discussed. Japi gen. nov., is characterized by a fringe of long hairs on the inner side of antennomere III, present only in species from North and Central America, and gender comparison of these species is done and discussed. In Hemilophini, Pseudotacocha gen. nov., type species P. magnifica sp. nov. from Peru (Cuzco), are described. The new genera can be distinguished by eyes well developed, elytra with two carinae and the apices outer with short spine; a comparison with related genera is done.

Revision of Neodischistus Painter, 1933 (Diptera, Bombyliidae, Bombyliinae)

The Neotropical genus Neodischistus Painter has a distribution restricted to South (Brazil and Argentina) and Central America (Panama). The genus is composed of two previously described species that are herein revised: N. currani Painter and N. collaris Painter. One new Brazilian species is described: N. marstoni sp. nov. Illustrations of the external morphology of adults and male and female terminalia are also included. An identification key to the species is presented and a short discussion about species distributions is added.

Reproductive biology of the ghost shrimp Lepidophthalmus bocourti (A. Milne-Edwards, 1870) (Decapoda: Axiidea: Callianassidae): A tropical species with a seasonal reproduction

Based on the hypothesis that reproduction is a continuous process in tropical habitats, we analysed reproductive periodicity and egg production in the callianassid ghost shrimp Lepidophthalmus bocourti, one of the most common species in mangrove systems along the Pacific coast of Central America. During one year (May 2008 to April 2009), individuals of L. bocourti (N = 499) were collected nearshore Gulf of Nicoya, Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Observations were made on presence or absence of incubated embryos, and gonad activity of females was analysed as gonadosomatic index (GSI). Our results revealed that L. bocourti has a marked seasonal breeding period, which contradicts previous reports regarding coastal marine decapods from the tropics. Ovigerous females were found only from June to August, while high GSI values were obtained from March to July. The increase of GSI and appearance of ovigerous females were associated with a concomitant decrease of salinity, but not with temperature. We assume that reproduction of L. bocourti is adapted to local changes of environmental conditions, and that a decrease in salinity during rainy season may serve as a triggering factor for ovarian development. Compared to other ghost shrimps, L. bocourti produced on average more (2002 +/- 1365) and smaller (0.87 +/- 0.109 mm) eggs, which seems to suggest that this species does not have an abbreviated larval development as reported for other species of genus. The deviation from the generalization of constant reproduction in the tropics for shallow water marine invertebrates and its probable cause are adequately discussed.

Ontogenetic and evolutionary change of external morphology of the neotropical shrimp potimirim (Holthuis, 1954) explained by a molecular phylogeny of the genus

A phylogenetic analysis of a fragment of the mitochondrial gene 16S was used to test the monophyletic status of Potimirim. Existing doubts on the taxonomic status of brasiliana (once P glabra) and P potimirim (once P mexicana) were clarified. Potimirim mexicana and P potimirim are distinct species according to molecular data and appendix masculina morphology. A new species (Potimirim sp. 1) from Puerto Rico was revealed with molecular data, and it is evolutionarily related to P potimirim and P mexicana according to our analysis. We found out three distinct species under the name P glabra. Then, we recommend the application of the name P glabra for the populations of the Pacific slope of Central America and revalidation of P brasiliana for the Brazilian ones. The need for a new name to those "P glabra" of the Caribbean is highlighted, and it was provisionally referred as Potimirim sp. 2. The ontogenetic (juveniles to adults) development of the appendix masculina of P brasiliana was observed and compared to the other species of Potimirim (adults). In the light of our phylogenetic hypothesis, we postulate a pattern of character addition for the evolution of the appendix masculina of Potimirim. This hypothesis is plausible for two key reasons. First. Potimirim is a monophyletic group according to our hypothesis. Second, the shape of appendix masculina found in adults of P. americana is similar and comparable to those found in the earliest juvenile stages of P brasiliana, a derived species according to our phylogeny (P americana, ((P mexicana, Potimirim sp. 1. P potimirim), (P glabra, (brasiliana, Potimirim sp. 2)))). As so, the basal P americana retain the ancestral morphological state of the appendix masculina when compared to the other species of Potimirim. In our interpretation the ontogeny of the appendix masculina recapitulated the proposed phylogeny, giving further support to it.

Morphological and genetic variability in Hippolyte obliquimanus dana, 1852 (Decapoda, Caridea, Hippolytidae) from Brazil and the caribbean sea

Hippolyte obliquimanus is a marine shrimp reported from the Caribbean Sea and Brazil. The literature provides indications for morphological variation between populations from those regions and the species has a troubled taxonomic history. The aims of this study were to analyse morphological and genetic variation in the populations of H. obliquimanus from Brazil and the Caribbean Sea and to verify if those might support separation of H. obliquimanus into two or more species. This hypothesis was tested with the analysis of morphological and genetic data (mitochondrial gene 16S and the barcode region Cytochrome Oxidase I). The material analysed was obtained from samples and from loans of zoological collections. The rostrum as well as pereiopods 3, 4, and 5 were the adult morphological characters that showed variation, but this occurred in samples from both regions, Brazil and the Caribbean Sea. The sequences of the 16S gene were identical among all specimens analysed. There was, however, variation among the sequences of the barcoding gene COI (<2.0%); this divergence separated the specimens into two groups (Brazil versus the Caribbean) and these groups did not share haplotypes. In conclusion, specimens from the regions analysed showed both morphological and genetic variation, but these did not support the separation of H. obliquimanus into two or more species.

The Panama microplate, island studies and relictual species of Melipona (Melikerria) (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini)

The endemic stingless honey-making bee Melipona (Melikerria) insularissp.n. on Coiba and Rancheria Islands in Pacific Panama is described, together with the proposed sister species, M. ambigua sp.n. from northeast Colombia. The Coiba Island group and Panama mainland were surveyed, yielding one meliponine endemic (M. insularissp.n.) and six meliponine genera and species. The poor Coiba fauna of amphibians and birds corresponds to the poor social bee fauna and suggests habitat barriers generally precluded recolonization from the mainland during glacial periods. Many animals became extinct, yet some remain as relicts. Melipona insularissp.n. was isolated on accreted terranes of Coiba rainforest in the Panama microplate. Morphology suggests that M. insularissp.n. is not a direct descendant of the San Blas-E. Panama endemic Melikerria, M. triplaridis. A phylogenetic hypothesis corroborates disjunct distributions. Rainforest endemics such as Peltogyne purpurea (Fabaceae) and Ptilotrigona occidentalis (Apidae, Meliponini) also occur as relictual, disjunct populations in Central and South America. These may have been isolated before accelerated biotic exchange began 2.4 Ma. Our work supports the geological findings of both a volcanic arc and the San Blas massif providing a substantial bridge for Melikerria from Colombia and Panama in Eocene to Miocene times. We suggest there have been taxon cycles permitting recolonization during glaciations, whereby colonies of M. insularissp.n. were able to recolonize Rancheria, a 250 ha island, 2 km from Coiba. However, rafting colonies nesting in trees, carried on vegetation mats, may have produced founding populations of Melipona in Central America and on oceanic islands such as Coiba.

Rickettsia bellii infecting Amblyomma sabanerae ticks in El Salvador

Four Amblyomma sabanerae ticks collected from a turtle (Kinosternon sp.) in San Miguel, El Salvador, were found by molecular analysis to be infected by Rickettsia bellii. We provide the first report of Rickettsia bellii in Central America, and the first report of a Rickettsia species in El Salvador.

Craniometric diversity of the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) in Central and South America

The common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus Geoffroy, 1810, is a species with an extensive geographical distribution, occurring in a wide variety of habitats. A recent phylogeographical study using molecular markers described a scenario in which this species is formed by 5 distinct geographically circumscribed mitochondrial clacks. Here we studied the craniometric variation of the common vampire bat to assess the amount of subdivision within this species and to test for the possibility of distinct morphological patterns associated with geographical lineages. We used 16 measurements from 1,581 complete skulls of adult D. rotundus representing 226 localities in South America and Mesoamerica. The assessment of morphological diversity between groups was done by the estimation of minimum F-ST values. Overall, the results show that most of the within-species variation is a result of the size component. Both shape data and size data are correlated with geographic distances. Our results favor the origin of biological diversity as the outcome of genetic drift and stepping-stone pattern of gene flow instead of local adaptations to local environmental conditions. The F-ST analyses also support male-biased dispersal. The results give little evidence to support previous suggestions that the common vampire bat may be composed of 2 or more species.

Lapa das boleiras rockshelter: stratigraphy and formation processes at a paleoamerican site in Central Brazil

Lapa clas Boleiras rockshelter, a Paleoamerican archaeological site in Central Brazil, was intensely occupied by humans from 10,000 C-14 BP (11.8 cal kyr BP), until approximately 7500 C-14 BP (8.4 cal kyr BP). In this paper we present some interpretations about the formation processes operating on the site. One of our main conclusions is that the bulk of accumulated sediments at the site is of anthropogenic origin: they are constituted by volumetrically significant quantities of plant ash remains, what is somewhat unexpectedly in view of prevailing models about the lifestyle of Paleoamerican hunter-gatherers in South America. The evidence we discuss below is also consistent with paleoenvironmental data that suggest a dry period during the mid-Holocene in the region, probably leading to a decrease in human occupation [Araujo, A.G.M., Neves, W., Pilo, L.B., Atui, J.P., 2005. Holocene dryness and human Occupation in Brazil during the `Archaic Gap`. Quaternary Research 64, 298-307]. We surmise that both factors underpin a surprising reduction in sediment accumulation at the site during the mid-Holocene. (C) 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Novos táxons de Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) das Américas Central e do Sul

Novos táxons descritos: em Cerambycinae, Bomarion caudatum sp. nov., da Bolívia (Ectenessini); Nephalius levigatus sp. nov., do Brasil, Paraíba (Elaphidiini); Bothriospila pulcherrima sp. nov., do Brasil, Bahia (Bothriospilini); Cycnidolon rufescens sp. nov., do Brasil, Paraíba (Neoibidionini). Em Lamiinae: Cicatricallia gen. nov., espécie-tipo: C. cicatricosa sp. nov. de Trindade e Tobago (Calliini); Mimasyngenes clarkei sp. nov., de Trinidad e Tobago e Mimasyngenes fonticulus sp. nov., do Brasil, Piauí; Ibypeba gen. nov., espécie-tipo: I. camiri sp. nov., da Bolívia; Micratelodesmis gen. nov., espécie-tipo: M. minor sp. nov. (Desmiphorini); Lycidola affinis sp. nov. de Trinidad e Tobago (Hemilophini). Novos registros: Lycidola beltii Bates, 1872 para a Costa Rica e Alampyris fuscus Martins & Galileo, 2008 para o Panamá (Hemilophini).

THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL BRAZIL: FRONTIERS AND FRONTS PIONEERING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The process of territorial formation in Brazil is examined in this paper in order to establish, through a study that favors more interior region of Portuguese America, a suitable analytical arsenal geohistorica an interpretation of the built legacy of colonial Lusitanian action on American soil. Thus, it is expected to recover some aspects not yet addressed conclusively by the specialized literature, the importance of colonial territorial nexus in the construction and maintenance of the substrate material on which the new politically independent state would claim jurisdiction after 1822. Through the examination of so-called western border, articulated through the contacts held between the cities network of Goias and the strong, prisons, villages and towns planned in Mato Grosso, outline an interpretation of regional dynamics in the moments preceding the running of the Brazilian political emancipation.

Geochemical constraints on blueschist- and amphibolite-facies rocks of the Central Cordillera of Colombia: the Andean Barragan region

Subduction zones are one of the most characteristic features of planet Earth. Convergent plate junctions exert enormous influence on the formation and recycling of continental crust, and they are also responsible for major mineral resources and earthquakes, which are of crucial importance for society. A subduction-related geologic unit containing high-pressure rocks occurs in the Barragan area (Valle del Cauca Department) on the western flank of the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. Blueschists and amphibolites, serpentinized meta-ultramafic rocks, graphite-chlorite-muscovite-quartz schists, protocataclasites, and graphite-chlorite-andalusite-andesine-garnet-muscovite +/- titanite schists are exposed in this region. In spite of the petrotectonic importance of blueschists, the high-pressure metamorphism of the Central Cordillera of Colombia has been rarely studied. New geochemical data indicate that protoliths of the blueschist- and amphibolite-facies rocks possessed normal mid-ocean ridge basalt bulk compositions. Ar-40/Ar-39 geochronology for a metapelite rock associated with the blueschists shows a plateau age of similar to 120 million years. We suggest that high-P/T conditions were present from similar to 150 to 125 Ma, depending on the model of generation and exhumation considered.

Rock Art at the Pleistocene/Holocene Boundary in Eastern South America

Background: Most investigations regarding the First Americans have primarily focused on four themes: when the New World was settled by humans; where they came from; how many migrations or colonization pulses from elsewhere were involved in the process; and what kinds of subsistence patterns and material culture they developed during the first millennia of colonization. Little is known, however, about the symbolic world of the first humans who settled the New World, because artistic manifestations either as rock-art, ornaments, and portable art objects dated to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition are exceedingly rare in the Americas. Methodology/Principal Findings: Here we report a pecked anthropomorphic figure engraved in the bedrock of Lapa do Santo, an archaeological site located in Central Brazil. The horizontal projection of the radiocarbon ages obtained at the north profile suggests a minimum age of 9,370640 BP, (cal BP 10,700 to 10,500) for the petroglyph that is further supported by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates from sediment in the same stratigraphic unit, located between two ages from 11.7 +/- 0.8 ka BP to 9.9 +/- 0.7 ka BP. Conclusions: These data allow us to suggest that the anthropomorphic figure is the oldest reliably dated figurative petroglyph ever found in the New World, indicating that cultural variability during the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in South America was not restricted to stone tools and subsistence, but also encompassed the symbolic dimension.