Liberalism, Marxism and Democratic Theory Revisited: Proposal of a Joint Index of Political and Economic Democracy

Liberalism and Marxism are two schools of thought which have left deep imprints in sociological, political and economic theory. They are usually perceived as opposite, rival approaches. In the field of democracy there is a seemingly insurmountable rift around the question of political versus economic democracy. Liberals emphasize the former, Marxists the latter. Liberals say that economic democracy is too abstract and fuzzy a concept, therefore one should concentrate on the workings of an objective political democracy. Marxists insist that political democracy without economic democracy is insufficient. The article argues that both propositions are valid and not mutually exclusive. It proposes the creation of an operational, quantifiable index of economic democracy that can be used alongside the already existing indexes of political democracy. By using these two indexes jointly, political and economic democracy can be objectively evaluated. Thus, the requirements of both camps are met and maybe a more dialogical approach to democracy can be reached in the debate between liberals and Marxists. The joint index is used to evaluate the levels of economic and political democracy in the transition countries of Eastern Europe.

Morphology of the gas bladder in thorny catfishes (Siluriformes: Doradidae)

The gross morphology of the gas bladder is described, illustrated, compared and categorized among 86 of 88 nominal valid and six undescribed species representing all 31 genera of Doradidae with comments on ontogenetic and taxonomic variation when observed. The putatively basal-most doradids exhibit an unmodified cordiform gas bladder. Derived taxa exhibit an impressive suite of modifications including the addition of a secondary bladder, pronounced reduction of the posterolateral chambers, internal trabeculae, associations with bony capsule-like expansions of the anterior (Weberian) vertebrae, and accessory diverticula varying widely in size, shape, abundance, and distribution. Intra-specific differences are minor, most often reflective of ontogenetic changes especially in large-size species, whereas inter-specific and inter-generic differences are significant, in many cases diagnostic, and suggestive of phylogenetic signal excepting instances of evident convergence such as gas bladder reduction in Rhynchodoras and all but one species of Leptodoras.