Ocorrência e remoção dos protozoários patogênicos Giardia spp. e Cryptosporidium spp. em sistemas de tratamento de esgoto sanitário

O propósito do presente estudo foi investigar e monitorar a remoção de cistos de Giardia spp. e oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. por diferentes processos de uma estação de tratamento de esgoto (ETE) em escala plena, composta basicamente por tratamento preliminar, reator UASB e flotador por ar dissolvido, e verificar a ocorrência desses protozoários no lodo do reator UASB e do flotador. Além disso, avaliou-se a remoção desses parasitos pelo processo de flotação por ar dissolvido em escala de bancada (equipamento Flotateste). Analisou-se a qualidade das amostras a partir de variáveis físicas e químicas, e pela detecção de microrganismos indicadores - E. coli, coliformes totais e Clostridium perfringens. Os métodos de detecção de protozoários se basearam nas etapas de concentração (tripla centrifugação ou filtração em membrana seguida de tripla centrifugação); purificação por separação imunomagnética (IMS); detecção por reação de imunofluorescência direta (RID). As recuperações de cistos variaram de 32,6 a 67,0 % dependendo do método adotado, já para os oocistos as recuperações estiveram na faixa de 5,6 a 12,0 %. Na ETE-Monjolinho foram detectadas significativas quantidades de cistos de Giardia spp. em 100% das amostras de esgoto analisadas, com concentração média de 1,89 x 104 e 2,35 x 102 cistos.L-1 no esgoto bruto e tratado, respectivamente. Já os oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. foram detectados em 39,0 % das amostras de esgoto, com concentração média de 1,35 x 102 oocistos.L-1 no esgoto bruto e 5,87 oocistos.L-1 em esgoto tratado (após flotador). A remoção global da ETE para remoção de Giardia spp. foi em média 2,03 log. O lodo do reator UASB e lodo do flotador apresentaram altas quantidade de (oo)cistos, constatando-se a tendência desses sistemas em concentrar os (oo)cistos por seus processos físicos. Algumas correlações significativas foram encontradas, como correlação entre a concentração de cistos no lodo e a variável sólidos totais, a concentração de cistos no esgoto bruto e as variáveis cor aparente, DQO total e particulada, e a concentração de cistos no efluente UASB e o microrganismo Clostridium perfringens. Diferentemente do flotador em escala plena, o processo do flotação por ar dissolvido em escala de bancada alcançou elevadas remoções médias de cistos de Giardia spp., entre 2,5 e 2,7 log nas diferentes condições de floculação estudadas.

Infrared microspectroscopy of inflammatory process and colon tumors.

According to the last global burden of disease published by the World Health Organization, tumors were the third leading cause of death worldwide in 2004. Among the different types of tumors, colorectal cancer ranks as the fourth most lethal. To date, tumor diagnosis is based mainly on the identification of morphological changes in tissues. Considering that these changes appears after many biochemical reactions, the development of vibrational techniques may contribute to the early detection of tumors, since they are able to detect such reactions. The present study aimed to develop a methodology based on infrared microspectroscopy to characterize colon samples, providing complementary information to the pathologist and facilitating the early diagnosis of tumors. The study groups were composed by human colon samples obtained from paraffin-embedded biopsies. The groups are divided in normal (n=20), inflammation (n=17) and tumor (n=18). Two adjacent slices were acquired from each block. The first one was subjected to chemical dewaxing and H&E staining. The infrared imaging was performed on the second slice, which was not dewaxed or stained. A computational preprocessing methodology was employed to identify the paraffin in the images and to perform spectral baseline correction. Such methodology was adapted to include two types of spectral quality control. Afterwards the preprocessing step, spectra belonging to the same image were analyzed and grouped according to their biochemical similarities. One pathologist associated each obtained group with some histological structure based on the H&E stained slice. Such analysis highlighted the biochemical differences between the three studied groups. Results showed that severe inflammation presents biochemical features similar to the tumors ones, indicating that tumors can develop from inflammatory process. A spectral database was constructed containing the biochemical information identified in the previous step. Spectra obtained from new samples were confronted with the database information, leading to their classification into one of the three groups: normal, inflammation or tumor. Internal and external validation were performed based on the classification sensitivity, specificity and accuracy. Comparison between the classification results and H&E stained sections revealed some discrepancies. Some regions histologically normal were identified as inflammation by the classification algorithm. Similarly, some regions presenting inflammatory lesions in the stained section were classified into the tumor group. Such differences were considered as misclassification, but they may actually evidence that biochemical changes are in course in the analyzed sample. In the latter case, the method developed throughout this thesis would have proved able to identify early stages of inflammatory and tumor lesions. It is necessary to perform additional experiments to elucidate this discrepancy between the classification results and the morphological features. One solution would be the use of immunohistochemistry techniques with specific markers for tumor and inflammation. Another option includes the recovering of the medical records of patients who participated in this study in order to check, in later times to the biopsy collection, whether they actually developed the lesions supposedly detected in this research.

Efeito da aplicação de composto orgânico sobre a qualidade do solo cultivado com cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum spp.)

A dinâmica ambiental possui capacidade limitada de reciclagem e a crescente utilização resíduos agroindustriais, especialmente na agricultura, pode levar a situações de poluição do solo e demais componentes ambientais. A manutenção da produtividade de ecossistemas agrícolas e naturais depende do processo de transformação da matéria orgânica e, por conseguinte, da biomassa microbiana do solo, e que é responsável pela decomposição e mineralização de resíduos no mesmo. A dinâmica natural dos microrganismos do solo, em constante mudança e adaptação, os torna um indicador sensível às mudanças resultantes de diferentes práticas de manejo agrícola. Sendo assim, conhecer essas alterações e suas interferências é fundamental para identificar estratégias adequadas de manejo, apontando técnicas de utilização adequadas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a qualidade de um solo agrícola, cultivado com três variedades de cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum spp.), comparando a utilização de adubação mineral frente à utilização de fertilizante orgânico composto no período final de formação dos perfilhos (120 dias após o plantio). Foi implantado, em condições de campo, o cultivo de cana-de-açúcar (cana planta), utilizando as variedades RB 867515, RB 962869 e RB 855453, onde cada variedade foi cultivada de três formas distintas, sendo elas: plantio controle (CT) sem aplicação de insumos para adubação; plantio orgânico (OG) com aplicação de fertilizante orgânico; e plantio convencional (CV) com aplicação de adubação mineral, seguindo recomendações de adubação após análise química inicial do solo local. Cada parcela possuía 37 m2, com 5 sulcos de 5,0 m de comprimento e espaçamento de 1,5 m entrelinhas, sendo os três sulcos centrais formando a área útil. De acordo com a variedade e o tipo de adubação, foram formados nove tratamentos: T1 86CT, T2 96CT, T3 85CT, T4 6OG, T5 96OG, T6 85OG, T7 86CV, T8 96CV e T9 85CV, com delineamento estatístico de blocos ao acaso e quatro repetições. Os parâmetros químicos do solo analisados foram macronutrientes e micronutrientes; os parâmetros microbiológicos foram carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), respiração basal do solo (RBS), quociente metabólico (qCO2), número mais provável de fungos e bactérias do solo (NMP); e, por fim, a produtividade agrícola (t/ha). Os resultados foram submetidos a análise de variância (ANOVA) e à comparação das médias através do teste de Tukey (10%). Também foi realizada a análise de variância dos dados e correlação cofenética de Pearson para formação de dendogramas. Com base no período estudado, considerado como fase crítica da formação do canavial, concluiu-se que os parâmetros químicos que evidenciaram alterações no solo foram pH e os macronutrientes Mg, Al e SB, sendo os tratamentos orgânicos equivalentes e/ou melhores que os tratamentos convencionais. Para os parâmetros microbiológicos, o NMP de fungos apresentou os maiores valores nos tratamentos convencionais e controle. A produtividade agrícola não foi influenciada pelos diferentes tratamentos e insumos utilizados, independente da variedade de cana-de-açúcar utilizada. Por fim, foram observadas correlações positivas entre as variáveis CTC e quociente metabólico (qCO2) apontando potencial melhoria da qualidade do solo, com o emprego de insumos orgânicos

Soil quality response to land-use change for sugarcane expansion in Brazil

Globally, increasing demands for biofuels have intensified the rate of land-use change (LUC) for expansion of bioenergy crops. In Brazil, the world\'s largest sugarcane-ethanol producer, sugarcane area has expanded by 35% (3.2 Mha) in the last decade. Sugarcane expansion has resulted in extensive pastures being subjected to intensive mechanization and large inputs of agrochemicals, which have direct implications on soil quality (SQ). We hypothesized that LUC to support sugarcane expansion leads to overall SQ degradation. To test this hypothesis we conducted a field-study at three sites in the central-southern region, to assess the SQ response to the primary LUC sequence (i.e., native vegetation to pasture to sugarcane) associated to sugarcane expansion in Brazil. At each land use site undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were collected from the 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm depths. Soil chemical and physical attributes were measured through on-farm and laboratory analyses. A dataset of soil biological attributes was also included in this study. Initially, the LUC effects on each individual soil indicator were quantified. Afterward, the LUC effects on overall SQ were assessed using the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF). Furthermore, six SQ indexes (SQI) were developed using approaches with increasing complexity. Our results showed that long-term conversion from native vegetation to extensive pasture led to soil acidification, significant depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC) and macronutrients [especially phosphorus (P)] and severe soil compaction, which creates an unbalanced ratio between water- and air-filled pore space within the soil and increases mechanical resistance to root growth. Conversion from pasture to sugarcane improved soil chemical quality by correcting for acidity and increasing macronutrient levels. Despite those improvements, most of the P added by fertilizer accumulated in less plant-available P forms, confirming the key role of organic P has in providing available P to plants in Brazilian soils. Long-term sugarcane production subsequently led to further SOC depletions. Sugarcane production had slight negative impacts on soil physical attributes compared to pasture land. Although tillage performed for sugarcane planting and replanting alleviates soil compaction, our data suggested that the effects are short-term with persistent, reoccurring soil consolidation that increases erosion risk over time. These soil physical changes, induced by LUC, were detected by quantitative soil physical properties as well as by visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS), an on-farm and user-friendly method for evaluating SQ. The SMAF efficiently detected overall SQ response to LUC and it could be reliably used under Brazilian soil conditions. Furthermore, since all of the SQI values developed in this study were able to rank SQ among land uses. We recommend that simpler and more cost-effective SQI strategies using a small number of carefully chosen soil indicators, such as: pH, P, K, VESS and SOC, and proportional weighting within of each soil sectors (chemical, physical and biological) be used as a protocol for SQ assessments in Brazilian sugarcane areas. The SMAF and SQI scores suggested that long-term conversion from native vegetation to extensive pasture depleted overall SQ, driven by decreases in chemical, physical and biological indicators. In contrast, conversion from pasture to sugarcane had no negative impacts on overall SQ, mainly because chemical improvements offset negative impacts on biological and physical indicators. Therefore, our findings can be used as scientific base by farmers, extension agents and public policy makers to adopt and develop management strategies that sustain and/or improving SQ and the sustainability of sugarcane production in Brazil.

Real time optimization in chemical process: evaluation of strategies, improvements and industrial application.

The increasing economic competition drives the industry to implement tools that improve their processes efficiencies. The process automation is one of these tools, and the Real Time Optimization (RTO) is an automation methodology that considers economic aspects to update the process control in accordance with market prices and disturbances. Basically, RTO uses a steady-state phenomenological model to predict the process behavior, and then, optimizes an economic objective function subject to this model. Although largely implemented in industry, there is not a general agreement about the benefits of implementing RTO due to some limitations discussed in the present work: structural plant/model mismatch, identifiability issues and low frequency of set points update. Some alternative RTO approaches have been proposed in literature to handle the problem of structural plant/model mismatch. However, there is not a sensible comparison evaluating the scope and limitations of these RTO approaches under different aspects. For this reason, the classical two-step method is compared to more recently derivative-based methods (Modifier Adaptation, Integrated System Optimization and Parameter estimation, and Sufficient Conditions of Feasibility and Optimality) using a Monte Carlo methodology. The results of this comparison show that the classical RTO method is consistent, providing a model flexible enough to represent the process topology, a parameter estimation method appropriate to handle measurement noise characteristics and a method to improve the sample information quality. At each iteration, the RTO methodology updates some key parameter of the model, where it is possible to observe identifiability issues caused by lack of measurements and measurement noise, resulting in bad prediction ability. Therefore, four different parameter estimation approaches (Rotational Discrimination, Automatic Selection and Parameter estimation, Reparametrization via Differential Geometry and classical nonlinear Least Square) are evaluated with respect to their prediction accuracy, robustness and speed. The results show that the Rotational Discrimination method is the most suitable to be implemented in a RTO framework, since it requires less a priori information, it is simple to be implemented and avoid the overfitting caused by the Least Square method. The third RTO drawback discussed in the present thesis is the low frequency of set points update, this problem increases the period in which the process operates at suboptimum conditions. An alternative to handle this problem is proposed in this thesis, by integrating the classic RTO and Self-Optimizing control (SOC) using a new Model Predictive Control strategy. The new approach demonstrates that it is possible to reduce the problem of low frequency of set points updates, improving the economic performance. Finally, the practical aspects of the RTO implementation are carried out in an industrial case study, a Vapor Recompression Distillation (VRD) process located in Paulínea refinery from Petrobras. The conclusions of this study suggest that the model parameters are successfully estimated by the Rotational Discrimination method; the RTO is able to improve the process profit in about 3%, equivalent to 2 million dollars per year; and the integration of SOC and RTO may be an interesting control alternative for the VRD process.