Effects of inhibitors of plasminogen activator, serine proteinases, and collagenase IV on the invasion of basement membranes by metastatic cells

Using both human and murine cell lines, we show that malignant cells are able to invade through basement membrane and also secrete elevated amounts of collagenase IV, an enzyme implicated in the degradation of basement membranes. Using serine proteinase inhibitors and antibodies to plasminogen activators as well as a newly described collagenase inhibitor we demonstrate that a protease cascade leads to the activation of an enzyme(s) that cleaves collagen IV. Inhibition at each step reduces the invasion of the tumor cells through reconstituted basement membrane in vitro. Treatment with a collagenase inhibitor reduced the incidence of lung lesions in mice given i.v. injections of malignant melanoma cells.

Soluble laminin and arginine-glycine-aspartic acid containing peptides differentially regulate type IV collagenase messenger RNA, activation, and localization in testicular cell culture

Rat testicular cells in culture produce several metalloproteinases including type IV collagenases (Sang et al. Biol Reprod 1990; 43:946-955, 956-964). We have now investigated the regulation of testicular cell type IV collagenase and other metalloprotemases in vitro. Soluble laminin stimulated Sertoli cell type IV collagenase mRNA levels. However, three peptides corresponding to different domains of the laminin molecule (CSRAKQAASIKVASADR, FALRGDNP, CLQDGDVRV) did not influence type IV collagenase mENA levels. Zyniographic analysis of medium collected from these cultures revealed that neither soluble laminin nor any of the peptides influenced 72-Wa type IV collagenase protein levels. However, peptide FALRGDNP resulted in both, a selective increase in two higher molecular-weight metalloprotemnases (83 kDa and 110 Wa and in an activation of the 72-Wa rat type IV collagenase. Interleukin-1, phorbol ester, testosterone, and FSH did not affect collagenase activation, lmmunocytochemical studies demonstrated that the addition of soluble laminin resulted in a redistribution of type IV collagenase from intracellular vesicles to the cell-substrate region beneath the cells. Peptide FALRGDNP induced a change from a vesicular to peripheral plasma membrane type of staining pattern. Zymography of plasma membrane preparations demonstrated triton-soluble gelatinases of 76 Wa, 83 Wa, and 110 Wa and a triton-insoluble gelatinase of 225 Wa, These results indicate that testicular cell type IV collagenase mRNA levels, enzyme activation, and distribution are influenced by laminin and RGD-containing peptides.

A forensic investigation of single human hair fibres using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy and chemometrics

Human hair fibres are ubiquitous in nature and are found frequently at crime scenes often as a result of exchange between the perpetrator, victim and/or the surroundings according to Locard's Principle. Therefore, hair fibre evidence can provide important information for crime investigation. For human hair evidence, the current forensic methods of analysis rely on comparisons of either hair morphology by microscopic examination or nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses. Unfortunately in some instances the utilisation of microscopy and DNA analyses are difficult and often not feasible. This dissertation is arguably the first comprehensive investigation aimed to compare, classify and identify the single human scalp hair fibres with the aid of FTIR-ATR spectroscopy in a forensic context. Spectra were collected from the hair of 66 subjects of Asian, Caucasian and African (i.e. African-type). The fibres ranged from untreated to variously mildly and heavily cosmetically treated hairs. The collected spectra reflected the physical and chemical nature of a hair from the near-surface particularly, the cuticle layer. In total, 550 spectra were acquired and processed to construct a relatively large database. To assist with the interpretation of the complex spectra from various types of human hair, Derivative Spectroscopy and Chemometric methods such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Fuzzy Clustering (FC) and Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) program; Preference Ranking Organisation Method for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE) and Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA); were utilised. FTIR-ATR spectroscopy had two important advantages over to previous methods: (i) sample throughput and spectral collection were significantly improved (no physical flattening or microscope manipulations), and (ii) given the recent advances in FTIR-ATR instrument portability, there is real potential to transfer this work.s findings seamlessly to on-field applications. The "raw" spectra, spectral subtractions and second derivative spectra were compared to demonstrate the subtle differences in human hair. SEM images were used as corroborative evidence to demonstrate the surface topography of hair. It indicated that the condition of the cuticle surface could be of three types: untreated, mildly treated and treated hair. Extensive studies of potential spectral band regions responsible for matching and discrimination of various types of hair samples suggested the 1690-1500 cm^-1 IR spectral region was to be preferred in comparison with the commonly used 1750-800 cm^-1. The principal reason was the presence of the highly variable spectral profiles of cystine oxidation products (1200-1000 cm^-1), which contributed significantly to spectral scatter and hence, poor hair sample matching. In the preferred 1690-1500 cm^-1 region, conformational changes in the keratin protein attributed to the α-helical to β-sheet transitions in the Amide I and Amide II vibrations and played a significant role in matching and discrimination of the spectra and hence, the hair fibre samples. For gender comparison, the Amide II band is significant for differentiation. The results illustrated that the male hair spectra exhibit a more intense β-sheet vibration in the Amide II band at approximately 1511 cm^-1 whilst the female hair spectra displayed more intense α-helical vibration at 1520-1515cm^-1. In terms of chemical composition, female hair spectra exhibit greater intensity of the amino acid tryptophan (1554 cm^-1), aspartic and glutamic acid (1577 cm^-1). It was also observed that for the separation of samples based on racial differences, untreated Caucasian hair was discriminated from Asian hair as a result of having higher levels of the amino acid cystine and cysteic acid. However, when mildly or chemically treated, Asian and Caucasian hair fibres are similar, whereas African-type hair fibres are different. In terms of the investigation's novel contribution to the field of forensic science, it has allowed for the development of a novel, multifaceted, methodical protocol where previously none had existed. The protocol is a systematic method to rapidly investigate unknown or questioned single human hair FTIR-ATR spectra from different genders and racial origin, including fibres of different cosmetic treatments. Unknown or questioned spectra are first separated on the basis of chemical treatment i.e. untreated, mildly treated or chemically treated, genders, and racial origin i.e. Asian, Caucasian and African-type. The methodology has the potential to complement the current forensic analysis methods of fibre evidence (i.e. Microscopy and DNA), providing information on the morphological, genetic and structural levels.

Notch and NOXA-related pathways in melanoma cells

Notch receptor-mediated intracellular events represent an ancient cell signaling system, and alterations in Notch expression are associated with various malignancies in which Notch may function as an oncogene or less commonly as a tumor suppressor. Notch signaling regulates cell fate decisions in the epidermis, including influencing stem cell dynamics and growth/differentiation control of cells in skin. Because of increasing evidence that the Notch signaling network is deregulated in human malignancies, Notch receptors have become attractive targets for selective killing of malignant cells. Compared with proliferating normal human melanocytes, melanoma cell lines are characterized by markedly enhanced levels of activated Notch-1 receptor. By using a small molecule gamma-secretase inhibitor (GSI) consisting of a tripeptide aldehyde, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Leu-Leu-Nle-CHO, which can block processing and activation of all four different Notch receptors, we identified a specific apoptotic vulnerability in melanoma cells. GSI triggers apoptosis in melanoma cells, but only G2/M growth arrest in melanocytes without subsequent cell death. Moreover, GSI treatment induced a pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein, NOXA, in melanoma cells but not in normal melanocytes. The use of GSI to induce NOXA induction overcomes the apoptotic resistance of melanoma cells, which commonly express numerous cell survival proteins such as Mcl-1, Bcl-2, and survivin. Taken together, these results highlight the concept of synthetic lethality in which exposure to GSI, in combination with melanoma cells overexpressing activated Notch receptors, has lethal consequences, producing selective killing of melanoma cells, while sparing normal melanocytes. By identifying signaling pathways that contribute to the transformation of melanoma cells (e.g. Notch signaling), and anti-cancer agents that achieve tumor selectivity (e.g., GSI-induced NOXA), this experimental approach provides a useful framework for future therapeutic strategies in cutaneous oncology.

Viruses of banana in East Africa

Bananas are one of the world's most important food crops, providing sustenance and income for millions of people in developing countries and supporting large export industries. Viruses are considered major constraints to banana production, germplasm multiplication and exchange, and to genetic improvement of banana through traditional breeding. In Africa, the two most important virus diseases are bunchy top, caused by Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), and banana streak disease, caused by Banana streak virus (BSV). BBTV is a serious production constraint in a number of countries within/bordering East Africa, such as Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda and Zambia, but is not present in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Additionally, epidemics of banana streak disease are occurring in Kenya and Uganda. The rapidly growing tissue culture (TC) industry within East Africa, aiming to provide planting material to banana farmers, has stimulated discussion about the need for virus indexing to certify planting material as virus-free. Diagnostic methods for BBTV and BSV have been reported and, for BBTV, PCR-based assays are reliable and relatively straightforward. However for BSV, high levels of serological and genetic variability and the presence of endogenous virus sequences within the banana genome complicate diagnosis. Uganda has been shown to contain the greatest diversity in BSV isolates found anywhere in the world. A broad-spectrum diagnostic test for BSV detection, which can discriminate between endogenous and episomal BSV sequences, is a priority. This PhD project aimed to establish diagnostic methods for banana viruses, with a particular focus on the development of novel methods for BSV detection, and to use these diagnostic methods for the detection and characterisation of banana viruses in East Africa. A novel rolling-circle amplification (RCA) method was developed for the detection of BSV. Using samples of Banana streak MY virus (BSMYV) and Banana streak OL virus (BSOLV) from Australia, this method was shown to distinguish between endogenous and episomal BSV sequences in banana plants. The RCA assay was used to screen a collection of 56 banana samples from south-west Uganda for BSV. RCA detected at least five distinct BSV isolates in these samples, including BSOLV and Banana streak GF virus (BSGFV) as well as three BSV isolates (Banana streak Uganda-I, -L and -M virus) for which only partial sequences had been previously reported. These latter three BSV had only been detected using immuno-capture (IC)-PCR and thus were possible endogenous sequences. In addition to its ability to detect BSV, the RCA protocol was also demonstrated to detect other viruses within the family Caulimoviridae, including Sugar cane bacilliform virus, and Cauliflower mosaic virus. Using the novel RCA method, three distinct BSV isolates from both Kenya and Uganda were identified and characterised. The complete genome of these isolates was sequenced and annotated. All six isolates were shown to have a characteristic badnavirus genome organisation with three open reading frames (ORFs) and the large polyprotein encoded by ORF 3 was shown to contain conserved amino acid motifs for movement, aspartic protease, reverse transcriptase and ribonuclease H activities. As well, several sequences important for expression and replication of the virus genome were identified including the conserved tRNAmet primer binding site present in the intergenic region of all badnaviruses. Based on the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) guidelines for species demarcation in the genus Badnavirus, these six isolates were proposed as distinct species, and named Banana streak UA virus (BSUAV), Banana streak UI virus (BSUIV), Banana streak UL virus (BSULV), Banana streak UM virus (BSUMV), Banana streak CA virus (BSCAV) and Banana streak IM virus (BSIMV). Using PCR with species-specific primers designed to each isolate, a genotypically diverse collection of 12 virus-free banana cultivars were tested for the presence of endogenous sequences. For five of the BSV no amplification was observed in any cultivar tested, while for BSIMV, four positive samples were identified in cultivars with a B-genome component. During field visits to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, 143 samples were collected and assayed for BSV. PCR using nine sets of species-specific primers, and RCA, were compared for BSV detection. For five BSV species with no known endogenous counterpart (namely BSCAV, BSUAV, BSUIV, BSULV and BSUMV), PCR was used to detect 30 infections from the 143 samples. Using RCA, 96.4% of these samples were considered positive, with one additional sample detected using RCA which was not positive using PCR. For these five BSV, PCR and RCA were both useful for identifying infected samples, irrespective of the host cultivar genotype (Musa A- or B-genome components). For four additional BSV with known endogenous counterparts in the M. balbisiana genome (BSOLV, BSGFV, BSMYV and BSIMV), PCR was shown to detect 75 infections from the 143 samples. In 30 samples from cultivars with an A-only genome component there was 96.3% agreement between PCR positive samples and detection using RCA, again demonstrating either PCR or RCA are suitable methods for detection. However, in 45 samples from cultivars with some B-genome component, the level of agreement between PCR positive samples and RCA positive samples was 70.5%. This suggests that, in cultivars with some B-genome component, many infections were detected using PCR which were the result of amplification of endogenous sequences. In these latter cases, RCA or another method which discriminates between endogenous and episomal sequences, such as immuno-capture PCR, is needed to diagnose episomal BSV infection. Field visits were made to Malawi and Rwanda to collect local isolates of BBTV for validation of a PCR-based diagnostic assay. The presence of BBTV in samples of bananas with bunchy top disease was confirmed in 28 out of 39 samples from Malawi and all nine samples collected in Rwanda, using PCR and RCA. For three isolates, one from Malawi and two from Rwanda, the complete nucleotide sequences were determined and shown to have a similar genome organisation to previously published BBTV isolates. The two isolates from Rwanda had at least 98.1% nucleotide sequence identity between each of the six DNA components, while the similarity between isolates from Rwanda and Malawi was between 96.2% and 99.4% depending on the DNA component. At the amino acid level, similarities in the putative proteins encoded by DNA-R, -S, -M, - C and -N were found to range between 98.8% to 100%. In a phylogenetic analysis, the three East African isolates clustered together within the South Pacific subgroup of BBTV isolates. Nucleotide sequence comparison to isolates of BBTV from outside Africa identified India as the possible origin of East African isolates of BBTV.

Phenotypic Characterization of Prostate Cancer LNCaP Cells Cultured within a Bioengineered Microenvironment

Biophysical and biochemical properties of the microenvironment regulate cellular responses such as growth, differentiation, morphogenesis and migration in normal and cancer cells. Since two-dimensional (2D) cultures lack the essential characteristics of the native cellular microenvironment, three-dimensional (3D) cultures have been developed to better mimic the natural extracellular matrix. To date, 3D culture systems have relied mostly on collagen and Matrigel™ hydrogels, allowing only limited control over matrix stiffness, proteolytic degradability, and ligand density. In contrast, bioengineered hydrogels allow us to independently tune and systematically investigate the influence of these parameters on cell growth and differentiation. In this study, polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels, functionalized with the Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motifs, common cell-binding motifs in extracellular matrix proteins, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) cleavage sites, were characterized regarding their stiffness, diffusive properties, and ability to support growth of androgen-dependent LNCaP prostate cancer cells. We found that the mechanical properties modulated the growth kinetics of LNCaP cells in the PEG hydrogel. At culture periods of 28 days, LNCaP cells underwent morphogenic changes, forming tumor-like structures in 3D culture, with hypoxic and apoptotic cores. We further compared protein and gene expression levels between 3D and 2D cultures upon stimulation with the synthetic androgen R1881. Interestingly, the kinetics of R1881 stimulated androgen receptor (AR) nuclear translocation differed between 2D and 3D cultures when observed by immunofluorescent staining. Furthermore, microarray studies revealed that changes in expression levels of androgen responsive genes upon R1881 treatment differed greatly between 2D and 3D cultures. Taken together, culturing LNCaP cells in the tunable PEG hydrogels reveals differences in the cellular responses to androgen stimulation between the 2D and 3D environments. Therefore, we suggest that the presented 3D culture system represents a powerful tool for high throughput prostate cancer drug testing that recapitulates tumor microenvironment. © 2012 Sieh et al.

Incorporation of exogenous RGD peptide and inter-species blending as strategies for enhancing human corneal limbal epithelial cell growth on Bombyx mori silk fibroin membranes

While fibroin isolated from the cocoons of domesticated silkworm Bombyx mori supports growth of human corneal limbal epithelial (HLE) cells, the mechanism of cell attachment remains unclear. In the present study we sought to enhance the attachment of HLE cells to membranes of Bombyx mori silk fibroin (BMSF) through surface functionalization with an arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)-containing peptide. Moreover, we have examined the response of HLE cells to BMSF when blended with the fibroin produced by a wild silkworm, Antheraea pernyi, which is known to contain RGD sequences within its primary structure. A procedure to isolate A. pernyi silk fibroin (APSF) from the cocoons was established, and blends of the two fibroins were prepared at five different BMSF/APSF ratios. In another experiment, BMSF surface was modified by binding chemically the GRGDSPC peptide using a water-soluble carbodiimide. Primary HLE were grown in the absence of serum on membranes made of BMSF, APSF, and their blends, as well as on RGD-modified BMSF. There was no statistically significant enhancing effect on the cell attachment due to the RGD presence. This suggests that the adhesion through RGD ligands may have a complex mechanism, and the investigated strategies are of limited value unless the factors contributing to this mechanism become better known.

The biology of the glutamatergic system and potential role in migraine

Migraine is a common genetically linked neurovascular disorder. Approximately ~12% of the Caucasian population are affected including 18% of adult women and 6% of adult men (1, 2). A notable female bias is observed in migraine prevalence studies with females affected ~3 times more than males and is credited to differences in hormone levels arising from reproductive achievements. Migraine is extremely debilitating with wide-ranging socioeconomic impact significantly affecting people's health and quality of life. A number of neurotransmitter systems have been implicated in migraine, the most studied include the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems. Extensive genetic research has been carried out to identify genetic variants that may alter the activity of a number of genes involved in synthesis and transport of neurotransmitters of these systems. The biology of the Glutamatergic system in migraine is the least studied however there is mounting evidence that its constituents could contribute to migraine. The discovery of antagonists that selectively block glutamate receptors has enabled studies on the physiologic role of glutamate, on one hand, and opened new perspectives pertaining to the potential therapeutic applications of glutamate receptor antagonists in diverse neurologic diseases. In this brief review, we discuss the biology of the Glutamatergic system in migraine outlining recent findings that support a role for altered Glutamatergic neurotransmission from biochemical and genetic studies in the manifestation of migraine and the implications of this on migraine treatment.

Cloning, expression, characterisation and mutational analysis of l-aspartate oxidase from Pseudomonas putida

L-Amino acid oxidases (LAAOs) are useful catalysts for the deracemisation of racemic amino acid sub-strates when combined with abiotic reductants. The gene nadB encoding the L-aspartate amino acid oxidase from Pseudomonas putida (PpLASPO) has been cloned and expressed in E. coli. The purified PpLASPO enzyme displayed a K M for l-aspartic acid of 2.26 mM and a k cat = 10.6 s −1 , with lower activity also displayed towards L-asparagine, for which pronounced substrate inhibition was also observed. The pH optimum of the enzyme was recorded at pH 7.4. The enzyme was stable for 60 min at up to 40 • C, but rapid losses in activity were observed at 50 • C. A mutational analysis of the enzyme, based on its sequence homology with the LASPO from E. coli of known structure, appeared to confirm roles in substrate binding or catalysis for residues His244, His351, Arg386 and Arg290 and also for Thr259 and Gln242. The high activity of the enzyme, and its promiscuous acceptance of both L-asparagine and L-glutamate as substrates, if with low activity, suggests that PpLASPO may provide a good model enzyme for evolution studies towards AAOs of altered or improved properties in the future.

Roles of the matrix metalloproteinases in mammary gland development and cancer

Tissue remodeling is a key process involved in normal development, wound healing, bone remodeling, and embryonic implantation, as well as pathological conditions such as tumor invasion and metastasis, and angiogenesis. The degradation of the extracellular matrix that is associated with those processes is mediated by a number of families of extracellular proteinases. These families include the serine proteinases, such as the plasminogen-urokinase plasminogen activator system and leukocyte elastases, the cysteine proteinases, like cathepsin D and L, and the zinc-dependent matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Accumulating evidence has highlighted the central role of MMP-driven extracellular matrix remodeling in mammary gland development and breast cancer.

Expression of c-ets-1 mRNA is associated with an invasive, EMT-derived phenotype in breast carcinoma cell lines

We have previously observed in vitro that some stromal proteinases (MMP- 2, MT1-MMP) were expressed or activated by invasive carcinoma cell lines exhibiting mesenchymal features, presumably acquired through an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). To examine the potential contribution of c- ets-1 to this phenotype, we have compared here the expression of c-ets-1 with invasiveness in vitro and expression of vimentin, E-cadherin, uPA, MMP-1 and MMP-3 in a panel of human breast cancer cell lines. Our results clearly demonstrate an association between c-ets-1 expression and the invasive, EMT- derived phenotype, which is typified by the expression of vimentin and the lack of E-cadherin. While absent from the two non-invasive, vimentin-negative cell lines, c-ets-1 was abundantly expressed in all the four vimentin- positive lines. However, we could not find a clear quantitative or qualitative relationship between the expression of c-ets-1 and the three proteinases known to he regulated by c-ets-1, except that when they were expressed, it was only in the invasive c-ets-1-positive lines. UPA mRNAs were found in three of the four vimentin-positive lines, MMP-1 in two of the four, and MMP-3 could not be detected in any of the cell lines. Intriguingly, MDA- MB-435 cells, which exhibit the highest metastatic potential of these cell lines in nude mice, expressed vimentin and c-ets-1, but lacked expression of these three proteinases, at least under the culture conditions employed. Taken together, our results show that c-ets-1 expression is associated with an invasive, EMT-derived phenotype in breast cancer cells, although it is apparently not sufficient to ensure the expression of uPA, MMP-1 or MMP-3, in the vimentin-positive cells. Such proteases regulation is undoubtedly qualified by the cellular context. This study therefore advances our understanding of the molecular regulation of invasiveness in EMT-associated carcinoma progression, and suggests that c-ets-1 may contribute to the invasive phenotype in carcinoma cells.

Scleral matrix metalloproteinases, serine proteinase activity and hydrational capacity are increased in myopia induced by retinal image degradation

In the avian model of myopia, retinal image degradation quickly leads to ocular enlargement. We now give evidence that regionally specific changes in ocular size are correlated with both biomechanical indices of scleral remodeling, e.g. hydration capacity and with biochemical changes in proteinase activities. The latter include a 72 kDa matrix metalloproteinase (putatively MMP-2), other gelatin-binding MMPs, an acid pH MMP and a serine protease. Specifically, we have found that increases in scleral hydrational capacity parallel increases in collagen degrading activities. Gelatin zymography reveals that eyes with 7 days of retinal image degradation have elevated levels (1.4-fold) of gelatinolytic activities at 72 and 67 kDa M(r) in equatorial and posterior pole regions of the sclera while, after 14 days of treatment, increases are no longer apparent. Lower M(r) zymographic activities at 50, 46 and 37 kDa M(r) are collectively increased in eyes treated for both 7 and 14 days (1.4- and 2.4-fold respectively) in the equator and posterior pole areas of enlarging eyes. Western blot analyses of scleral extracts with an antibody to human MMP-2 reveals immunoreactive bands at 65, 30 and 25 kDa. Zymograms incubated under slightly acidic conditions reveal that, in enlarging eyes, MMP activities at 25 and 28 kDa M(r) are increased in scleral equator and posterior pole (1.6- and 4.5-fold respectively). A TIMP-like protein is also identified in sclera and cornea by Western blot analysis. Finally, retinal-image degradation also increases (~2.6-fold) the activity of a 23.5 kDa serine proteinase in limbus, equator and posterior pole sclera that is inhibited by aprotinin and soybean trypsin inhibitor. Taken together, these results indicate that eye growth induced by retinal-image degradation involves increases in the activities of multiple scleral proteinases that could modify the biomechanical properties of scleral structural components and contribute to tissue remodeling and growth.

Activation of membrane-bound proteins and receptor systems: A link between tissue kallikrein and the KLK-related peptidases

The 15 members of the kallikrein-related serine peptidase (KLK) family have diverse tissue-specific expression profiles and roles in a range of cellular processes, including proliferation, migration, invasion, differentiation, inflammation and angiogenesis that are required in both normal physiology as well as pathological conditions. These roles require cleavage of a range of substrates, including extracellular matrix proteins, growth factors, cytokines as well as other proteinases. In addition, it has been clear since the earliest days of KLK research that cleavage of cell surface substrates is also essential in a range of KLK-mediated cellular processes where these peptidases are essentially acting as agonists and antagonists. In this review we focus on these KLK-regulated cell surface receptor systems including bradykinin receptors, proteinase-activated receptors, as well as the plasminogen activator, ephrins and their receptors, and hepatocyte growth factor/Met receptor systems and other plasma membrane proteins. From this analysis it is clear that in many physiological and pathological settings KLKs have the potential to regulate multiple receptor systems simultaneously; an important issue when these peptidases and substrates are targeted in disease.