Effective punishment experiences : the need for a more comprehensive approach to conceptualising behavioural punishers and reinforcers in a road safety context

Determining what consequences are likely to serve as effective punishment for any given behaviour is a complex task. This chapter focuses specifically on illegal road user behaviours and the mechanisms used to punish and deter them. Traffic law enforcement has traditionally used the threat and/or receipt of legal sanctions and penalties to deter illegal and risky behaviours. This process represents the use of positive punishment, one of the key behaviour modification mechanisms. Behaviour modification principles describe four types of reinforcers: positive and negative punishments and positive and negative reinforcements. The terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ are not used in an evaluative sense here. Rather, they represent the presence (positive) or absence (negative) of stimuli to promote behaviour change. Punishments aim to inhibit behaviour and reinforcements aim to encourage it. This chapter describes a variety of punishments and reinforcements that have been and could be used to modify illegal road user behaviours. In doing so, it draws on several theoretical perspectives that have defined behavioural reinforcement and punishment in different ways. Historically, the main theoretical approach used to deter risky road use has been classical deterrence theory which has focussed on the perceived certainty, severity and swiftness of penalties. Stafford and Warr (1993) extended the traditional deterrence principles to include the positive reinforcement concept of punishment avoidance. Evidence of the association between punishment avoidance experiences and behaviour has been established for a number of risky road user behaviours including drink driving, unlicensed driving, and speeding. We chose a novel way of assessing punishment avoidance by specifying two sub-constructs (detection evasion and punishment evasion). Another theorist, Akers, described the idea of competing reinforcers, termed differential reinforcement, within social learning theory (1977). Differential reinforcement describes a balance of reinforcements and punishments as influential on behaviour. This chapter describes comprehensive way of conceptualising a broad range of reinforcement and punishment concepts, consistent with Akers’ differential reinforcement concept, within a behaviour modification framework that incorporates deterrence principles. The efficacy of three theoretical perspectives to explain self-reported speeding among a sample of 833 Australian car drivers was examined. Results demonstrated that a broad range of variables predicted speeding including personal experiences of evading detection and punishment for speeding, intrinsic sensations, practical benefits expected from speeding, and an absence of punishing effects from being caught. Not surprisingly, being younger was also significantly related to more frequent speeding, although in a regression analysis, gender did not retain a significant influence once all punishment and reinforcement variables were entered. The implications for speed management, as well as road user behaviour modification more generally, are discussed in light of these findings. Overall, the findings reported in this chapter suggest that a more comprehensive approach is required to manage the behaviour of road users which does not rely solely on traditional legal penalties and sanctions.

Technical efficiency of mainstream airlines and low-cost carriers : New evidence using bootstrap data envelopment analysis truncated regression

Between 2001 and 2005, the US airline industry faced financial turmoil while the European airline industry entered a period of substantive deregulation. Consequently, this opened up opportunities for low-cost carriers to become more competitive in the market. To assess airline performance and identify the sources of efficiency in the immediate aftermath of these events, we employ a bootstrap data envelopment analysis truncated regression approach. The results suggest that at the time the mainstream airlines needed to significantly reorganize and rescale their operations to remain competitive. In the second-stage analysis, the results indicate that private ownership, status as a low-cost carrier, and improvements in weight load contributed to better organizational efficiency.

Review essay : Crime, risk and money : "The Currency of Justice : Fines and Damages in Consumer Societies" and "Crime and Risk", both by Pat O'Malley

Sharing some closely related themes and a common theoretical orientation based on the governmentality analytic, these are nevertheless two very different contributions to criminological knowledge and theory. The first, The Currency of Justice: Fines and Damages in Consumer Societies (COJ), is a sustained and highly original analysis of that most pervasive yet overlooked feature of modern legal orders; their reliance on monetary sanctions. Crime and Risk (CAR), on the other hand, is a short synoptic overview of the many dimensions and trajectories of risk in contemporary debate and practice, both the practices of crime and the governance of crime. It is one of the first in a new series by Sage, 'Compact Criminology', in which authors survey in little more than a hundred pages some current field of debate. With this small gem, Pat O'Malley has set the bar very high for those who follow. For all its brevity, CAR traverses a massive expanse of research, debates and issues, while also opening up new and challenging questions around the politics of risk and the relationship between criminal risk-taking and the governance of risk and crime. The two books draw together various threads of O'Malley's rich body of work on these issues, and once again demonstrate that he is one of the foremost international scholars of risk inside and outside criminology.

Colloidal drug probe : method development and validation for adhesion force measurement using atomic force microscopy

This study demonstrates a novel technique of preparing drug colloid probes to determine the adhesion force between the drug salbutamol sulphate (SS) and the surfaces of polymer microparticles to be used as carriers for the dispersion of drug particles from a dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulation. Initially model silica probes of approximately 4 μm size, similar to a drug particle used in DPI formulations, were coated with a saturated SS solution with the aid of capillary forces acting between the silica probe and the drug solution. The developed method of ensuring a smooth and uniform layer of SS on the silica probe was validated using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Using the same technique, silica microspheres preattached on the AFM cantilever were coated with SS. The adhesion forces between the silica probe and drug coated silica (drug probe) and polymer surfaces (hydrophilic and hydrophobic) were determined. Our experimental results showed that the technique for preparing the drug probe was robust and can be used to determine the adhesion force between hydrophilic/hydrophobic drug probe and carrier surfaces to gain a better understanding on drug carrier adhesion forces in DPI formulations.

A Satellite Selection Algorithm for Achieving High Reliability of Ambiguity Resolution with GPS and Beidou Constellations

Reliability of carrier phase ambiguity resolution (AR) of an integer least-squares (ILS) problem depends on ambiguity success rate (ASR), which in practice can be well approximated by the success probability of integer bootstrapping solutions. With the current GPS constellation, sufficiently high ASR of geometry-based model can only be achievable at certain percentage of time. As a result, high reliability of AR cannot be assured by the single constellation. In the event of dual constellations system (DCS), for example, GPS and Beidou, which provide more satellites in view, users can expect significant performance benefits such as AR reliability and high precision positioning solutions. Simply using all the satellites in view for AR and positioning is a straightforward solution, but does not necessarily lead to high reliability as it is hoped. The paper presents an alternative approach that selects a subset of the visible satellites to achieve a higher reliability performance of the AR solutions in a multi-GNSS environment, instead of using all the satellites. Traditionally, satellite selection algorithms are mostly based on the position dilution of precision (PDOP) in order to meet accuracy requirements. In this contribution, some reliability criteria are introduced for GNSS satellite selection, and a novel satellite selection algorithm for reliable ambiguity resolution (SARA) is developed. The SARA algorithm allows receivers to select a subset of satellites for achieving high ASR such as above 0.99. Numerical results from a simulated dual constellation cases show that with the SARA procedure, the percentages of ASR values in excess of 0.99 and the percentages of ratio-test values passing the threshold 3 are both higher than those directly using all satellites in view, particularly in the case of dual-constellation, the percentages of ASRs (>0.99) and ratio-test values (>3) could be as high as 98.0 and 98.5 % respectively, compared to 18.1 and 25.0 % without satellite selection process. It is also worth noting that the implementation of SARA is simple and the computation time is low, which can be applied in most real-time data processing applications.

The reduced expression of the HADH2 protein causes X-linked mental retardation, choreoathetosis, and abnormal behavior

Recently, we defined a new syndromic form of X-linked mental retardation in a 4-generation family with a unique clinical phenotype characterized by mild mental retardation, choreoathetosis, and abnormal behavior (MRXS10). Linkage analysis in this family revealed a candidate region of 13.4 Mb between markers DXS1201 and DXS991 on Xp11; therefore, mutation analysis was performed by direct sequencing in most of the 135 annotated genes located in the region. The gene (HADH2) encoding L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase II displayed a sequence alteration (c.574 C-->A; p.R192R) in all patients and carrier females that was absent in unaffected male family members and could not be found in 2,500 control X chromosomes, including in those of 500 healthy males. The silent C-->A substitution is located in exon 5 and was shown by western blot to reduce the amount of HADH2 protein by 60%-70% in the patient. Quantitative in vivo and in vitro expression studies revealed a ratio of splicing transcript amounts different from those normally seen in controls. Apparently, the reduced expression of the wild-type fragment, which results in the decreased protein expression, rather than the increased amount of aberrant splicing fragments of the HADH2 gene, is pathogenic. Our data therefore strongly suggest that reduced expression of the HADH2 protein causes MRXS10, a phenotype different from that caused by 2-methyl-3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by missense mutations in this multifunctional protein.

An overview of the role of goethite surfaces in the environment

Goethite, one of the most thermodynamically stable iron oxides, has been extensively researched especially the structure (including surface structure), the adsorption capacity to anions, organic/organic acid (especially for the soil organic carbon) and cations in the natural environment and its potential application in environmental protection. For example, the adsorption of heavy metals by goethite can decrease the concentration of heavy metals in aqueous solution and immobilize; the adsorption to soil organic carbon can decrease the release of carbon and fix carbon. In this present overview, the possible physicochemical properties of the goethite surface contributing to the strong affinity of goethite to nutrients and contaminants in natural environment are reported. Moreover, these chemicals adsorbed by goethite were also summarized and the suggested adsorption mechanism for these adsorbates was elucidated, which will help us understand the role of goethite in natural environment and provide some information about goethite as an absorbent. In addition, the feasibility of goethite used as catalyst carrier and the precursor of NZVI was proposed for removal of environmental pollution.

Conducting accelerometer-based activity assessments in field-based research

Purpose The purpose of this review is to address important methodological issues related to conducting accelerometer-based assessments of physical activity in free-living individuals. Methods We review the extant scientific literature for empirical information related to the following issues: product selection, number of accelerometers needed, placement of accelerometers, epoch length, and days of monitoring required to estimate habitual physical activity. We also discuss the various options related to distributing and collecting monitors and strategies to enhance compliance with the monitoring protocol. Results No definitive evidence exists currently to indicate that one make and model of accelerometer is more valid and reliable than another. Selection of accelerometer therefore remains primarily an issue of practicality, technical support, and comparability with other studies. Studies employing multiple accelerometers to estimate energy expenditure report only marginal improvements in explanatory power. Accelerometers are best placed on hip or the lower back. Although the issue of epoch length has not been studied in adults, the use of count cut points based on 1-min time intervals maybe inappropriate in children and may result in underestimation of physical activity. Among adults, 3–5 d of monitoring is required to reliably estimate habitual physical activity. Among children and adolescents, the number of monitoring days required ranges from 4 to 9 d, making it difficult to draw a definitive conclusion for this population. Face-to-face distribution and collection of accelerometers is probably the best option in field-based research, but delivery and return by express carrier or registered mail is a viable option. Conclusion Accelerometer-based activity assessments requires careful planning and the use of appropriate strategies to increase compliance.

Myogel supports the ex-vivo amplification of corneal epithelial cells

Limbal stem cell deficiency leads to conjunctivalisation of the cornea and subsequent loss of vision. The recent development of transplantation of ex-vivo amplified corneal epithelium, derived from limbal stem cells, has shown promise in treating this challenging condition. The purpose of this research was to compare a variety of cell sheet carriers for their suitability in creating a confluent corneal epithelium from amplified limbal stem cells. Cadaveric donor limbal cells were cultured using an explant technique, free of 3T3 feeder cells, on a variety of cell sheet carriers, including denuded amniotic membrane, Matrigel, Myogel and stromal extract. Comparisons in rate of growth and degree of differentiation were made, using immunocytochemistry (CK3, CK19 and ABCG2). The most rapid growth was observed on Myogel and denuded amniotic membrane, these two cell carriers also provided the most reliable substrata for achieving confluence. The putative limbal stem cell marker, ABCG2, stained positively on cells grown over Myogel and Matrigel but not for those propagated on denuded amniotic membrane. In the clinical setting amniotic membrane has been demonstrated to provide a suitable carrier for limbal stem cells and the resultant epithelium has been shown to be successful in treating limbal stem cell deficiency. Myogel may provide an alternative cell carrier with a further reduction in risk as it is has the potential to be derived from an autologous muscle biopsy in the clinical setting.

Bit-stream-based space vector modulators

Bit-stream-based control, which uses one bit wide signals to control power electronics applications, is a new approach for controller design in power electronic systems. This study presents a novel family of three-phase space vector modulators, which are based on the bit-stream technique and suitable for three-phase inverter systems. Each of the proposed modulators simultaneously converts a two-phase reference to the three-phase domain and reduces switching frequencies to reasonable levels. The modulators do not require carrier oscillators, trigonometric functions or, in some cases, sector detectors. A complete three-phase modulator can be implemented in as few as 102 logic elements. The performance of the proposed modulators is compared through simulation and experimental testing of a 6 kW, three-phase DC-to-AC inverter. Subject to limits on the modulation index, the proposed modulators deliver spread-spectrum output currents with total harmonic distortion comparable to a standard carrier-based space vector pulse width modulator.

Five-level Z-source diode-clamped inverter

This study proposes a five-level Z-source diode-clamped inverter designed with two intermediate Z-source networks connected between the dc input sources and rear-end inverter circuitry. By partially shorting the Z-source networks, new operating states not previously reported for two-level Z-source inverter are introduced here for operating the proposed inverter with voltage buck-boost energy conversion ability and five-level phase voltage switching. These characteristic features are in fact always ensured at the inverter terminal output by simply adopting a properly designed carrier modulation scheme, which always inserts two partial shoot-through states per half carrier cycle for smooth balanced operation. Theoretical findings and practical issues identified are eventually verified by constructing a scaled down laboratory prototype for testing.

Five-level current-source inverters with buck-boost and inductive-current balancing capabilities

This paper presents new five-level current-source inverters (CSIs) with voltage/current buck-boost capability, unlike existing five-level CSIs where only voltage-boost operation is supported. The proposed inverters attain self-inductive-current-balancing per switching cycle at their dc front ends without having to include additional balancing hardware or complex control manipulation. The inverters can conveniently be controlled by using the well-established phase-shifted carrier modulation scheme with only two additional linear references and a mapping logic table needed. Existing modulators can therefore be conveniently retrofitted for controlling the presented inverters. By appropriately coordinating the inverter gating signals, their implementations can be realized by using the least number of components without degrading performance. These enhanced features of the inverters have already been verified in simulation and experimentally using a scaled-down laboratory platform.

Fatty acid synthesis and pyruvate metabolism pathways remain active in dihydroartemisinin induced dormant ring stages of Plasmodium falciparum

Artemisinin (ART) based combination therapy (ACT) is used as the first line treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria worldwide. However, despite high potency and rapid action there is a high rate of recrudescence associated with ART monotherapy or ACT long before the recent emergence of ART resistance. ART induced ring stage dormancy and recovery has been implicated as possible cause of recrudescence; however, little is known about the characteristics of dormant parasites including whether dormant parasites are metabolically active. We investigated the transcription of 12 genes encoding key enzymes in various metabolic pathways in P. falciparum during dihydroartemisinin (DHA) induced dormancy and recovery. Transcription analysis showed an immediate down regulation for 10 genes following exposure to DHA, but continued transcription of 2 genes encoding apicoplast and mitochondrial proteins. Transcription of several additional genes encoding apicoplast and mitochondrial proteins, particularly genes encoding enzymes in pyruvate metabolism and fatty acid synthesis pathways, were also maintained. Additions of inhibitors for biotin acetyl CoA carbozylase and enoyl-acyl carrier reductase of the fatty acid synthesis pathways delayed the recovery of dormant parasites by 6 and 4 days, respectively following DHA treatment. Our results demonstrate most metabolic pathways are down regulated in DHA induced dormant parasites. In contrast fatty acid and pyruvate metabolic pathways remain active. These findings highlight new targets to interrupt recovery of parasites from ART-induced dormancy and to reduce the rate of recrudescence following ART treatment.

Structural, optical and electrical properties of Al-doped ZnO transparent conducting oxide for solar cell applications

Al-doped zinc oxide (AZO) thin films are deposited onto glass substrates using radio-frequency reactive magnetron sputtering and the improvements in their physical properties by post-synthesis thermal treatment are reported. X-ray diffraction spectra show that the structure of films can be controlled by adjusting the annealing temperatures, with the best crystallinity obtained at 400°C under a nitrogen atmosphere. These films exhibit improved quality and better optical transmittance as indicated by the UV-Vis spectra. Furthermore, the sheet resistivity is found to decrease from 1.87 × 10-3 to 5.63 × 10-4Ω⋅cm and the carrier mobility increases from 6.47 to 13.43 cm2 ⋅ V-1 ⋅ s-1 at the optimal annealing temperature. Our results demonstrate a simple yet effective way in controlling the structural, optical and electrical properties of AZO thin films, which is important for solar cell applications.