Reply to the discussion by Karen Johannesson on “Rare earth element geochemistry of scleractinian coral skeleton during meteoric diagenesis: a sequence through neomorphism of aragonite to calcite” by Webb et al., Sedimentology, 56, 1433-1463

Webb et al. (2009) described a late Pleistocenecoral sample wherein the diagenetic stabilization of original coral aragonite to meteoric calcite was halted more or less mid-way through the process, allowing direct comparison of pre-diagenetic and post-diagenetic microstructure and trace element distributions. Those authors found that the rare earth elements (REEs) were relatively stable during meteoric diagenesis, unlike divalent cations such as Sr,and it was thus concluded that original, in this case marine, REE distributions potentially could be preserved through the meteoric carbonate stabilization process that must have affected many, if not most, ancient limestones. Although this was not the case in the analysed sample, they noted that where such diagenesis took place in laterally transported groundwater, trace elements derived from that groundwater could be incorporated into diagenetic calcite, thus altering the initial REE distribution (Banner et al., 1988). Hence, the paper was concerned with the diagenetic behaviour of REEs in a groundwater-dominated karst system. The comment offered by Johannesson (2011) does not question those research results, but rather, seeks to clarify an interpretation made by Webb et al. (2009) of an earlier paper, Johannesson et al. (2006).

Assessment of the health impacts of the 2011 summer floods in Brisbane

Background: During December 2010 and January 2011, torrential rainfall in Queensland resulted in the worst flooding in over 50 years. We carried out a community-based survey to assess the health impacts of this flooding in the city of Brisbane. Methods: A community-based survey was conducted in 12 flood-affected electorates using postal questionnaires. A random sample of residents in these areas was drawn from electoral rolls. Questions examined sociodemographic information, the direct impact of flooding on the household, and perceived flood-related health impacts. Outcome variables included perceived flood-related effects on overall and respiratory health, along with mental health outcomes measured by psychosocial distress, reduced sleep quality and probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between flooding and health outcome variables, adjusted for current health status and socioeconomic factors. Results: 3000 residents were invited to participate in this survey, with 960 responses (32%). People whose households were directly impacted by flooding had a decrease in perceived overall health (OR 5.3, 95% CI: 2.8–10.2), along with increases in psychological distress (OR 1.9, 1.1–3.5), decreased sleep quality (OR 2.3, 1.2–4.4), and probable PTSD (OR 2.3, 1.2–4.5). Residents were also more likely to increase usage of both tobacco (OR 6.3, 2.4–16.8) and alcohol (OR 7.0, 2.2–22.3) after flooding. Conclusions: There were significant impacts of flood events on residents’ health, in particular psychosocial health. Improved support strategies may need to be integrated into existing disaster management programs to reduce flood-related health impacts.

The developmental and acute phases of insulin-induced laminitis involve minimal metalloproteinase activity

Metalloproteinases have been implicated in the pathogenesis of equine laminitis and other inflammatory conditions, through their role in the degradation and remodelling of the extracellular matrix environment. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors are present in normal equine lamellae, with increased secretion and activation of some metalloproteinases reported in horses with laminitis associated with systemic inflammation. It is unknown whether these enzymes are involved in insulin-induced laminitis, which occurs without overt systemic inflammation. In this study, gene expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, ADAMTS-4 and TIMP-3 was determined in the lamellar tissue of normal control horses (n = 4) and horses that developed laminitis after 48 h of induced hyperinsulinaemia (n = 4), using quantitative Real Time-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR). Protein concentrations of MMP-2 and MMP-9 were also examined using gelatin zymography in horses subject to prolonged hyperinsulinaemia for 6 h (n = 4), 12 h (n = 4), 24 h (n = 4) and 48 h (n = 4), and in normal control horses (n = 4). The only change in gene expression observed was an upregulation of MMP-9 (p < 0.05) in horses that developed insulin-induced laminitis (48 h). Zymographical analysis showed an increase (p < 0.05) in pro MMP-9 during the acute phase of laminitis (48 h), whereas pro MMP-2 was present in similar concentration in the tissue of all horses. Thus, MMP-2, MT1-MMP, TIMP-3 and ADAMTS-4 do not appear to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of insulin-induced laminitis. The increased expression of MMP-9 may be associated with the infiltration of inflammatory leukocytes, or may be a direct result of hyperinsulinaemia. The exact role of MMP-9 in basement membrane degradation in laminitis is uncertain as it appears to be present largely in the inactive form.

Prevalence and prognostic significance of secondary lymphedema following breast cancer

Background The adverse consequences of lymphedema following breast cancer in relation to physical function and quality of life are clear; however, its potential relationship with survival has not been investigated. Our purpose was to determine the prevalence of lymphedema and associated upper-body symptoms at 6 years following breast cancer and to examine the prognostic significance of lymphedema with respect to overall 6-year survival (OS). Methods and Results A population-based sample of Australian women (n=287) diagnosed with invasive, unilateral breast cancer was followed for a median of 6.6 years and prospectively assessed for lymphedema (using bioimpedance spectroscopy [BIS], sum of arm circumferences [SOAC], and self-reported arm swelling), a range of upper-body symptoms, and vital status. OS was measured from date of diagnosis to date of death or last follow-up. Kaplan-Meier methods were used to calculate OS and Cox proportional hazards models quantified the risk associated with lymphedema. Approximately 45% of women had reported at least one moderate to extreme symptom at 6.6 years postdiagnosis, while 34% had shown clinical evidence of lymphedema, and 48% reported arm swelling at least once since baseline assessment. A total of 27 (9.4%) women died during the follow-up period, and lymphedema, diagnosed by BIS or SOAC between 6–18 months postdiagnosis, predicted mortality (BIS: HR=2.5; 95% CI: 0.9, 6.8, p=0.08; SOAC: 3.0; 95% CI: 1.1, 8.7, p=0.04). There was no association (HR=1.2; 95% CI: 0.5, 2.6, p=0.68) between self-reported arm swelling and OS. Conclusions These findings suggest that lymphedema may influence survival following breast cancer treatment and warrant further investigation in other cancer cohorts and explication of a potential underlying biology.

IL-18 inhibits growth of murine orthotopic prostate carcinomas via both adaptive and innate immune mechanisms

Interleukin(IL)-18 is a pleiotrophic cytokine with functions in immune modulation, angiogenesis and bone metabolism. In this study, the potential of IL-18 as an immunotherapy for prostate cancer (PCa) was examined using the murine model of prostate carcinoma, RM1 and a bone metastatic variant RM1(BM)/B4H7-luc. RM1 and RM1(BM)/B4H7-luc cells were stably transfected to express bioactive IL-18. These cells were implanted into syngeneic immunocompetent mice, with or without an IL-18-neutralising antibody (αIL-18, SK113AE4). IL-18 significantly inhibited the growth of both subcutaneous and orthotopic RM1 tumors and the IL-18 neutralizing antibody abrogated the tumor growth-inhibition. In vivo neutralization of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) completely eliminated the anti-tumor effects of IL-18 confirming an essential role of IFN-γ as a down-stream mediator of the anti-tumor activity of IL-18. Tumors from mice in which IL-18 and/or IFN-γ was neutralized contained significantly fewer CD4+ and CD8+ T cells than those with functional IL-18. The essential role of adaptive immunity was demonstrated as tumors grew more rapidly in RAG1−/− mice or in mice depleted of CD4+ and/or CD8+ cells than in normal mice. The tumors in RAG1−/− mice were also significantly smaller when IL-18 was present, indicating that innate immune mechanisms are involved. IL-18 also induced an increase in tumor infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils but not NK cells. In other experiments, direct injection of recombinant IL-18 into established tumors also inhibited tumor growth, which was associated with an increase in intratumoral macrophages, but not T cells. These results suggest that local IL-18 in the tumor environment can significantly potentiate anti-tumor immunity in the prostate and clearly demonstrate that this effect is mediated by innate and adaptive immune mechanisms.

Does the effect of weight lifting on lymphedema following breast cancer differ by diagnostic method: results from a randomized controlled trial

The lymphedema diagnostic method used in descriptive or intervention studies may influence results found. The purposes of this work were to compare baseline lymphedema prevalence in the physical activity and lymphedema (PAL) trial cohort and to subsequently compare the effect of the weight-lifting intervention on lymphedema, according to four standard diagnostic methods. The PAL trial was a randomized controlled intervention study, involving 295 women who had previously been treated for breast cancer, and evaluated the effect of 12 months of weight lifting on lymphedema status. Four diagnostic methods were used to evaluate lymphedema outcomes: (i) interlimb volume difference through water displacement, (ii) interlimb size difference through sum of arm circumferences, (iii) interlimb impedance ratio using bioimpedance spectroscopy, and (iv) a validated self-report survey. Of the 295 women who participated in the PAL trial, between 22 and 52% were considered to have lymphedema at baseline according to the four diagnostic criteria used. No between-group differences were noted in the proportion of women who had a change in interlimb volume, interlimb size, interlimb ratio, or survey score of ≥5, ≥5, ≥10%, and 1 unit, respectively (cumulative incidence ratio at study end for each measure ranged between 0.6 and 0.8, with confidence intervals spanning 1.0). The variation in proportions of women within the PAL trial considered to have lymphoedema at baseline highlights the potential impact of the diagnostic criteria on population surveillance regarding prevalence of this common morbidity of treatment. Importantly though, progressive weight lifting was shown to be safe for women following breast cancer, even for those at risk or with lymphedema, irrespective of the diagnostic criteria used.

Helping understand nutritional gaps in the elderly (HUNGER) : a prospective study of patient factors associated with inadequate nutritional intake in older medical inpatients

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition, and poor intake during hospitalisation, are common in older medical patients. Better understanding of patient-specific factors associated with poor intake may inform nutritional interventions. AIMS: To measure the proportion of older medical patients with inadequate nutritional intake, and identify patient-related factors associated with this outcome. METHODS: Prospective cohort study enrolling consecutive consenting medical inpatients aged 65 years or older. Primary outcome was energy intake less than resting energy expenditure estimated using weight-based equations. Energy intake was calculated for a single day using direct observation of plate waste. Explanatory variables included age, gender, number of co-morbidities, number of medications, diagnosis, usual residence, nutritional status, functional and cognitive impairment, depressive symptoms, poor appetite, poor dentition, and dysphagia. RESULTS: Of 134 participants (mean age 80 years, 51% female), only 41% met estimated resting energy requirements. Mean energy intake was 1220 kcal/day (SD 440), or 18.1 kcal/kg/day. Factors associated with inadequate energy intake in multivariate analysis were poor appetite, higher BMI, diagnosis of infection or cancer, delirium and need for assistance with feeding. CONCLUSIONS: Inadequate nutritional intake is common, and patient factors contributing to poor intake need to be considered in nutritional interventions.

Discriminating stromatolite formation modes using rare earth element geochemistry: Trapping and binding versus in situ precipitation of stromatolites from the Neoproterozoic Bitter Springs Formation, Northern Territory, Australia

Stromatolites consist primarily of trapped and bound ambient sediment and/or authigenic mineral precipitates, but discrimination of the two constituents is difficult where stromatolites have a fine texture. We used laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry to measure trace element (rare earth element – REE, Y and Th) concentrations in both stromatolites (domical and branched) and closely associated particulate carbonate sediment in interspaces (spaces between columns or branches) from bioherms within the Neoproterozoic Bitter Springs Formation, central Australia. Our high resolution sampling allows discrimination of shale-normalised REE patterns between carbonate in stromatolites and immediately adjacent, fine-grained ambient particulate carbonate sediment from interspaces. Whereas all samples show similar negative La and Ce anomalies, positive Gd anomalies and chondritic Y/Ho ratios, the stromatolites and non-stromatolite sediment are distinguishable on the basis of consistently elevated light REEs (LREEs) in the stromatolitic laminae and relatively depleted LREEs in the particulate sediment samples. Additionally, concentrations of the lithophile element Th are higher in ambient sediment samples than in stromatolites, consistent with accumulation of some fine siliciclastic detrital material in the ambient sediment but a near absence in the stromatolites. These findings are consistent with the stromatolites consisting dominantly of in situ carbonate precipitates rather than trapped and bound ambient sediment. Hence, high resolution trace element (REE + Y, Th) geochemistry can discriminate fine-grained carbonates in these stromatolites from coeval non-stromatolitic carbonate sediment and demonstrates that the sampled stromatolites formed primarily from in situ precipitation, presumably within microbial mats/biofilms, rather than by trapping and binding of ambient sediment. Identification of the source of fine carbonate in stromatolites is significant, because if it is not too heavily contaminated by trapped ambient sediment, it may contain geochemical biosignatures and/or direct evidence of the local water chemistry in which the precipitates formed.

Assessment of the health impacts of the 2011 summer floods in Brisbane

Objective To assess the effects of the 2011 floods in Brisbane, Australia, on residents’ physical and mental health. Methods Residents who had been affected by the floods completed a community-based survey that examined the direct impact of flooding on households and their perceived physical and mental health. Outcome variables included overall and respiratory health and mental health outcomes related to psychological distress, sleep quality, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between flooding and perceived health outcome variables, adjusted for current health status and sociodemographic factors. Results Residents whose households were directly affected by flooding were more likely to report poor overall (Odds Ratio [OR] 5.3; 95% CI, 2.8-10.1) and respiratory (OR 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1-4.6) health, psychological distress (OR 1.9; 95% CI, 1.1-3.5), poor sleep quality (OR 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.4), and probable PTSD (OR 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.5). Conclusions The 2011 Brisbane floods had significant impact on the physical and psychosocial health of residents. Improved support strategies may need to be integrated into existing disaster management programs to reduce flood-related health impacts, particularly those related to mental health.

User participation in the categorisation of the State Library of Queensland digital image collections: characteristics, motivations and experiences

In 2010, the State Library of Queensland (SLQ) donated their out-of-copyright Queensland images to Wikimedia Commons. One direct effect of publishing the collections at Wikimedia Commons is the ability of general audiences to participate and help the library in processing the images in the collection. This paper will discuss a project that explored user participation in the categorisation of the State Library of Queensland digital image collections. The outcomes of this project can be used to gain a better understanding of user participation that lead to improving access to library digital collections. Two techniques for data collection were used: documents analysis and interview. Document analysis was performed on the Wikimedia Commons monthly reports. Meanwhile, interview was used as the main data collection technique in this research. The data collected from document analysis was used to help the researchers to devise appropriate questions for interviews. The interviews were undertaken with participants who were divided into two groups: SLQ staff members and Wikimedians (users who participate in Wikimedia). The two sets of data collected from participants were analysed independently and compared. This method was useful for the researchers to understand the differences between the experiences of categorisation from both the librarians’ and the users’ perspectives. This paper will provide a discussion on the preliminary findings that have emerged from each group participant. This research provides preliminary information about the extent of user participation in the categorisation of SLQ collections in Wikimedia Commons that can be used by SLQ and other interested libraries in describing their digital content by their categorisations to improve user access to the collection in the future.

Apixaban for the prevention of thromboembolism in adults after elective hip or knee replacement surgery, and in symptomatic venous thromboembolism

The anticoagulant effect of apixaban is due to direct inhibition of FXa in the coagulation cascade. The main advantages apixaban has over the current anti-coagulant drugs is that it is active after oral administration, and its coagulation effect does not require monitoring. Apixaban has been compared to enoxaparin in the prevention of venous thromboembolism associated with knee and hip replacement, where it is as efficacious as enoxaparin, but causes less bleeding. However, apixaban is not the only FXa inhibitor that could replace enoxaparin for this indication, as the FXa inhibitor rivaroxaban is as efficacious and safe as enoxaparin in preventing thromboembolism associated with these surgical procedures. Until the results of the AMPLIFY Phase III trial are known, it is too early to consider apixaban as an alternative to enoxaparin in symptomatic thromboembolism. Apixaban should not be used to prevent thromboembolism in medical immobilised subjects or acute coronary syndromes, as it causes excess bleeding in these conditions without benefit.

GABAergic modification of myopic and hyperopic ocular tissue effects on scleral fibroblast growth

Purpose: Myopia is a common eye disorder affecting up to 90% of children in South East Asia and 30% of the population worldwide. Myopia of high severity is a leading cause of blindness around the world (4th to 5th most common). Changes and remodelling of the sclera i.e. increase cellular proliferation & increase protein synthesis within scleral cells (↑ scleral DNA) and thinning and lose of extracellular matrix of sclera (↓ scleral GAG synthesis) have been linked to myopic eye growth in animal models. Signals acting on the sclera are thought to originate in the retina, and are modulated by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) with limited evidence suggesting that the RPE can modify scleral cell growth in culture. However, the mechanism of retinal signal transmission and the role of posterior eye cup tissue, including the RPE, in mediating changes in scleral fibroblast growth during myopia development are unclear. Retinal transmitter systems are critically involved in pathways regulating eye growth, which ultimately lead to alterations in the sclera if eye size is to change. A dopaminergic agonist and muscarinic antagonists decrease the proliferation of scleral chondrocytes when co-cultured with chick’s retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). GABA receptors have recently been localised to chick sclera. We therefore hypothesised that posterior eye cup tissue from myopic eyes would stimulate and from hyperopic eyes would inhibit growth of scleral fibroblasts in vitro and that GABAergic agents could directly interact with scleral cells or indirectly modify the effects of myopic and hyperopic posterior eye cup tissue on scleral fibroblast growth. Method: Fibroblastic cells obtained from 8-day-old chick sclera were used to establish cell banks. Two major experiments were performed. Experiment 1: To determine if posterior eye cup tissues from myopic eye stimulates and hyperopic eye inhibits scleral cell proliferation, when co-cultured with scleral cells in vitro. This study comprised two linked experiments, i) monocular visual treatments of FDM (form-deprivation myopia), LIM (lens-induced myopia) and LIH (lens-induced hyperopia) with assessment of the effect of full punch eye cup tissue on DNA and GAG synthesis by cultured chick scleral fibroblasts, and ii) binocular visual treatments comprising LIM and LIH with assessment of the effect of individual layers of eye cup tissues (neural retina, RPE and choroid) on cultured chick scleral fibroblasts. Visual treatment was applied for 3 days. Experiment 2: To determine the direct interaction of GABA agents on scleral cell growth and to establish whether GABA agents modify the stimulatory/inhibitory effect of myopic and hyperopic posterior eye cup tissues on cultured scleral cell growth in vitro. Two linked experiments were performed. i) GABA agonists (muscimol and baclofen) and GABA antagonists (bicuculine (-), CGP46381 and TPMPA) were added to scleral cell culture medium to determine their direct effect on scleral cells. ii) GABAergic agents (agonists and antagonists) were administered to scleral fibroblasts co-cultured with posterior eye cup tissue (retina, RPE, retina/RPE, RPE/choroid). Ocular tissues were obtained from chick eyes wearing +15D (LIH) or -15D lenses (LIM) for 3 days. In both experiments, tissues were added to hanging cell culture insert (pore size 1.0ìm) placed over each well of 24 well plates while scleral cells were cultured in DMEM/F12, Glutamax (Gibco) plus 10% FBS and penicillin/streptomycin (50U/ml)) and fungizone (1.25ug/ml) (Gibco), at seeding density of 30,000 cells/well at the bottom of the well and allowed to grow for 3 days. Scleral cells proliferation rate throughout the study was evaluated by determining GAG and DNA content of scleral cells using Dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) dye and Quant-iTTm Pico Green® dsDNA reagent respectively. Results and analysis: Based on DNA and GAG content, there was no significant difference in tissue effect of LIM and LIH eyes on scleral fibroblast growth (DNA: 8.4 ± 1.1μg versus 9.3 ± 2.3 μg, p=0.23; GAG: 10.13 ± 1.4 μg versus 12.67 ± 1.2 μg, F2,23=6.16, p=0.0005) when tissues were obtained from monocularly treated chick eyes (FDM or +15D lens or -15D lens over right eyes with left eyes untreated) and co-cultured as full punch. When chick eyes were treated binocularly with -15D lens (LIM) right eye and +15D lens (LIH) left eyes and tissue layers were separated, the retina from LIM eyes did not stimulate scleral cell proliferation compared to LIH eyes (DNA: 27.2 ± 6.7 μg versus 23.2 ± 1.5 μg, p=0.23; GAG: 28.1 ±3.7 μg versus 28.7 ± 4.2 μg, p=0.21). Similarly, the LIH and LIM choroid did not produce a differential effect based on DNA (LIM 46.9 ± 6.4 μg versus LIH 53.5 ± 4.7 μg, p=0.18), however the choroid from LIH eyes induced higher scleral GAG content than from LIM eyes (32.5 ± 6.7 μg versus 18.9 ± 1.2 μg, p=0.023). In contrast, the RPE from LIM eyes caused a significant increase in fibroblast proliferation whereas the RPE from LIH eyes was relatively inhibitory (72.4 ± 6.3 μg versus 27.9 ± 2.3 μg, F1, 6=69.99, p=0.0005). GAG data were opposite to DNA data e.g. the RPE from LIH eyes increased (33.7 ± 7.9 μg) while the RPE from LIM eyes decreased (28.2 ± 3.0 μg) scleral cell growth (F1, 6=13.99, p=0.010). Based on DNA content, GABA agents had a small direct effect on scleral cell growth; GABA agonists increased (21.4 ± 1.0% and 18.3 ± 1.0% with muscimol and baclofen, p=0.0021), whereas GABA antagonists decreased fibroblast proliferation (-23.7 ± 0.9% with bicuculine & CGP46381 and -28.1 ± 0.5% with TPMPA, p=0.0004). GABA agents also modified the effect of LIM and LIH tissues (p=0.0005).The increase in proliferation rate of scleral fibroblasts co-cultured with tissues (RPE, retina, RPE/retina and RPE/choroid) from LIM treated eyes was enhanced by GABA agonists (muscimol: 27.4 ± 1.2%, 35.8 ± 1.6%, 8.4 ± 0.3% and 11.9 ± 0.6%; baclofen: 27.0 ± 1.0%, 15.8 ± 1.5%, 16.8 ± 1.2% and 15.4 ± 0.4%, p=0.014) whereas GABA antagonists further reduced scleral fibroblasts growth (bicuculine: -52.5 ± 2.5%, -36.9 ± 1.4%, -37.5 ± 0.6% and -53.7 ± 0.9%; TPMPA: 57.3 ± 1.3%, -15.7 ± 1.2%, -33.5 ± 0.4% and -45.9 ± 1.5%; CGP46381: -51.9 ± 1.6%, -28.5 ± 1.5%, -25.4 ± 2.0% and -45.5 ± 1.9% respectively, p=0.0034). GAG data were opposite to DNA data throughout the experiment e.g. GABA agonists further inhibited while antagonists relatively enhanced scleral fibroblasts growth for both LIM and LIH tissue co-culture. The effect of GABA agents was relatively lower (p=0.0004) for tissue from LIH versus LIM eyes but was in a similar direction. There was a significant drug effect on all four tissue types e.g. RPE, retina, RPE/retina and RPE/choroid for both LIM and LIH tissue co-culture (F20,92=3.928, p=0.0005). However, the effect of GABA agents was greatest in co-culture with RPE tissue (F18,36=4.865, p=0.0005). Summary and Conclusion: 1) Retinal defocus signals are transferred to RPE and choroid which then exert their modifying effect on scleral GAG and DNA synthesis either through growth stimulating factors or directly interacting with scleral cells in process of scleral remodeling during LIM and LIH visual conditions. 2) GABAergic agents affect the proliferation of scleral fibroblasts both directly and when co-cultured with ocular tissues in vitro.

In the bank or on the ground : an examination of financial reserves in Australian international aid organisations

This study contributes to the understanding of the contribution of financial reserves to sustaining nonprofit organisations. Recognising the limited recent Australian research in the area of nonprofit financial vulnerability, it specifically examines financial reserves held by signatories to the Code of Conduct of the Australian Council for International Development (ACFID) for the years 2006 to 2010. As this period includes the Global Financial Crisis, it presents a unique opportunity to observe the role of savings in a period of heightened financial threats to sustainability. The need for nonprofit entities to maintain reserves, while appearing intuitively evident, is neither unanimously accepted nor supported by established theoretic constructs. Some early frameworks attempt to explain the savings behaviour of nonprofit organisations and its role in organisational sustainability. Where researchers have considered the issue, its treatment has usually been either purely descriptive or alternatively, peripheral to a broader attempt to predict financial vulnerability. Given the importance of nonprofit entities to civil society, the sustainability of these organisations during times of economic contraction, such as the recent Global Financial Crisis, is a significant issue. Widespread failure of nonprofits, or even the perception of failure, will directly affect, not only those individuals who access their public goods and services, but would also have impacts on public confidence in both government and the sectors’ ability to manage and achieve their purpose. This study attempts to ‘shine a light’ on the paradox inherent in considering nonprofit savings. On the one hand, a public prevailing view is that nonprofit organisations should not hoard and indeed, should spend all of their funds on the direct achievement of their purposes. Against this, is the commonsense need for a financial buffer if only to allow for the day to day contingencies of pay rises and cost increases. At the entity level, the extent of reserves accumulated (or not) is an important consideration for Management Boards. The general public are also interested in knowing the level of funds held by nonprofits as a measure of both their commitment to purpose and as an indicator of their effectiveness. There is a need to communicate the level and prevalence of reserve holdings, balancing the prudent hedging of uncertainty against a sense of resource hoarding in the mind of donors. Finally, funders (especially governments) are interested in knowing the appropriate level of reserves to facilitate the ongoing sustainability of the sector. This is particularly so where organisations are involved in the provision of essential public goods and services. At a scholarly level, the study seeks to provide a rationale for this behaviour within the context of appropriate theory. At a practical level, the study seeks to give an indication of the drivers for savings, the actual levels of reserves held within the sector studied, as well as an indication as to whether the presence of reserves did mitigate the effects of financial turmoil during the Global Financial Crisis. The argument is not whether there is a need to ensure sustainability of nonprofits, but rather how it is to be done and whether the holding of reserves (net assets) is an essential element is achieving this. While the study offers no simple answers, it does appear that the organisations studied present as two groups, the ‘savers’ who build reserves and keep ‘money in the bank’ and ‘spender-delivers’ who put their resources ‘on the ground’. To progress an understanding of this dichotomy, the study suggests a need to move from its current approach to one which needs to more closely explore accounts based empirical donor attitude and nonprofit Management Board strategy.

News media representations of homelessness : do economic news production pressures prevent journalists from adequately reporting complex social issues

This study used both content and frame analyses to test news-media representations of homelessness in The Courier-Mail newspaper for evidence of restricted journalism practice. Specifically, it sought signs of either direct manipulation of issue representation based on ideological grounds, and also evidence of news organisations prioritising low-cost news production over Public Sphere journalistic news values. The study found that news stories from the earlier parts of the longitudinal study showed stereotypical misrepresentations of homelessness for public deliberation which might be attributed to either, or both of the nominated restricting factors. However news stories from the latter part of the study saw a distinct change in the way the issue was represented, indicating a journalistic capacity to thoughtfully and sensitively represent a complex social issue to the public. Further study is recommended to ascertain how and why this change occurred, so that journalistic practice might be further improved.

Structural characterisation of kaolinite : NaCl intercalate and its derivatives

Kaolinite:NaCl intercalates with basal layer dimensions of 0.95 and 1.25 nm have been prepared by direct reaction of saturated aqueous NaCl solution with well-crystallized source clay KGa-1. The intercalates and their thermal decomposition products have been studied by XRD, solid-state 23Na, 27Al, and 29Si MAS NMR, and FTIR. Intercalate yield is enhanced by dry grinding of kaolinite with NaCl prior to intercalation. The layered structure survives dehydroxylation of the kaolinite at 500°–600°C and persists to above 800°C with a resultant tetrahedral aluminosilicate framework. Excess NaCl can be readily removed by rinsing with water, producing an XRD ‘amorphous’ material. Upon heating at 900°C this material converts to a well-crystallized framework aluminosilicate closely related to low-camegieite, NaAlSiO4, some 350°C below its stability field. Reaction mechanisms are discussed and structural models proposed for each of these novel materials.