The role of intensity of interval training on fat oxidation and eating behaviour in overweight/obese men

The increasing prevalence of obesity in society has been associated with a number of atherogenic risk factors such as insulin resistance. Aerobic training is often recommended as a strategy to induce weight loss, with a greater impact of high-intensity levels on cardiovascular function and insulin sensitivity, and a greater impact of moderate-intensity levels on fat oxidation. Anaerobic high-intensity (supramaximal) interval training has been advocated to improve cardiovascular function, insulin sensitivity and fat oxidation. However, obese individuals tend to have a lower tolerance of high-intensity exercise due to discomfort. Furthermore, some obese individuals may compensate for the increased energy expenditure by eating more and/or becoming less active. Recently, both moderate- and high-intensity aerobic interval training have been advocated as alternative approaches. However, it is still uncertain as to which approach is more effective in terms of increasing fat oxidation given the issues with levels of fitness and motivation, and compensatory behaviours. Accordingly, the objectives of this thesis were to compare the influence of moderate- and high-intensity interval training on fat oxidation and eating behaviour in overweight/obese men. Two exercise interventions were undertaken by 10-12 overweight/obese men to compare their responses to study variables, including fat oxidation and eating behaviour during moderate- and high-intensity interval training (MIIT and HIIT). The acute training intervention was a methodological study designed to examine the validity of using exercise intensity from the graded exercise test (GXT) - which measured the intensity that elicits maximal fat oxidation (FATmax) - to prescribe interval training during 30-min MIIT. The 30-min MIIT session involved 5-min repetitions of workloads 20% below and 20% above the FATmax. The acute intervention was extended to involve HIIT in a cross-over design to compare the influence of MIIT and HIIT on eating behaviour using subjective appetite sensation and food preference through the liking and wanting test. The HIIT consisted of 15-sec interval training at 85 %VO2peak interspersed by 15-sec unloaded recovery, with a total mechanical work equal to MIIT. The medium term training intervention was a cross-over 4-week (12 sessions) MIIT and HIIT exercise training with a 6-week detraining washout period. The MIIT sessions consisted of 5-min cycling stages at ±20% of mechanical work at 45 %VO2peak, and the HIIT sessions consisted of repetitive 30-sec work at 90 %VO2peak and 30-sec interval rests, during identical exercise sessions of between 30 and 45 mins. Assessments included a constant-load test (45 %VO2peak for 45 mins) followed by 60-min recovery at baseline and the end of 4-week training, to determine fat oxidation rate. Participants’ responses to exercise were measured using blood lactate (BLa), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and were measured during the constant-load test and in the first intervention training session of every week during training. Eating behaviour responses were assessed by measuring subjective appetite sensations, liking and wanting and ad libitum energy intake. Results of the acute intervention showed that FATmax is a valid method to estimate VO2 and BLa, but is not valid to estimate HR and RPE in the MIIT session. While the average rate of fat oxidation during 30-min MIIT was comparable with the rate of fat oxidation at FATmax (0.16 ±0.09 and 0.14 ±0.08 g/min, respectively), fat oxidation was significantly higher at minute 25 of MIIT (P≤0.01). In addition, there was no significant difference between MIIT and HIIT in the rate of appetite sensations after exercise, but there was a tendency towards a lower rate of hunger after HIIT. Different intensities of interval exercise also did not affect explicit liking or implicit wanting. Results of the medium-term intervention indicated that current interval training levels did not affect body composition, fasting insulin and fasting glucose. Maximal aerobic capacity significantly increased (P≤0.01) (2.8 and 7.0% after MIIT and HIIT respectively) during GXT, and fat oxidation significantly increased (P≤0.01) (96 and 43% after MIIT and HIIT respectively) during the acute constant-load exercise test. RPE significantly decreased after HIIT greater than MIIT (P≤0.05), and the decrease in BLa was greater during the constant-load test after HIIT than MIIT, but this difference did not reach statistical significance (P=0.09). In addition, following constant-load exercise, exercise-induced hunger and desire to eat decreased after HIIT greater than MIIT but were not significant (p value for desire to eat was 0.07). Exercise-induced liking of high-fat sweet (HFSW) and high-fat non-sweet (HFNS) foods increased after MIIT and decreased after HIIT (p value for HFNS was 0.09). The intervention explained 12.4% of the change in fat intake (p = 0.07). This research is significant in that it confirmed two points in the acute study. While the rate of fat oxidation increased during MIIT, the average rate of fat oxidation during 30-min MIIT was comparable with the rate of fat oxidation at FATmax. In addition, manipulating the intensity of acute interval exercise did not affect appetite sensations and liking and wanting. In the medium-term intervention, constant-load exercise-induced fat oxidation significantly increased after interval training, independent of exercise intensity. In addition, desire to eat, explicit liking for HFNS and fat intake collectively confirmed that MIIT is accompanied by a greater compensation of eating behaviour than HIIT. Findings from this research will assist in developing exercise strategies to provide obese men with various training options. In addition, the finding that overweight/obese men expressed a lower RPE and decreased BLa after HIIT compared with MIIT is contrary to the view that obese individuals may not tolerate high-intensity interval training. Therefore, high-intensity interval training can be advocated among the obese adult male population. Future studies may extend this work by using a longer-term intervention.

The role of psychological and physiological factors in decision making under risk and in a dilemma

We study the difference in the result of two different risk elicitation methods by linking estimates of risk attitudes to gender, age, personality traits, a decision in a dilemma situation, and physiological states measured by heart rate variability (HRV). Our results indicate that differences between the methods can partly be explained by gender, but not by personality traits. Furthermore, HRV is linked to risktaking in the experiment for at least one of the methods, indicating that more stressed individuals display more risk aversion. Finally, we and that risk attitudes are not predictive of the ability to decide in a dilemma, but personality traits are. Surprisingly, there is also no apparent relationship between the physiological state during the dilemma situation and the ability to make a decision.

Physiological tolerance times while wearing explosive ordnance disposal protective clothing in simulated environmental extremes

Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) technicians are required to wear protective clothing to protect themselves from the threat of overpressure, fragmentation, impact and heat. The engineering requirements to minimise these threats results in an extremely heavy and cumbersome clothing ensemble that increases the internal heat generation of the wearer, while the clothing’s thermal properties reduce heat dissipation. This study aimed to evaluate the heat strain encountered wearing EOD protective clothing in simulated environmental extremes across a range of differing work intensities. Eight healthy males [age 25±6 years (mean ± sd), height 180±7 cm, body mass 79±9 kg, V˙O2max 57±6 ml.kg−1.min−1] undertook nine trials while wearing an EOD9 suit (weighing 33.4 kg). The trials involved walking on a treadmill at 2.5, 4 and 5.5 km⋅h−1 at each of the following environmental conditions, 21, 30 and 37°C wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) in a randomised controlled crossover design. The trials were ceased if the participants’ core temperature reached 39°C, if heart rate exceeded 90% of maximum, if walking time reached 60 minutes or due to fatigue/nausea. Tolerance times ranged from 10–60 minutes and were significantly reduced in the higher walking speeds and environmental conditions. In a total of 15 trials (21%) participants completed 60 minutes of walking; however, this was predominantly at the slower walking speeds in the 21°C WBGT environment. Of the remaining 57 trials, 50 were ceased, due to attainment of 90% maximal heart rate. These near maximal heart rates resulted in moderate-high levels of physiological strain in all trials, despite core temperature only reaching 39°C in one of the 72 trials.

Heat strain and hydration status of surface mine blast crew workers

Objective Dehydration and symptoms of heat illness are common among the surface mining workforce. This investigation aimed to determine whether heat strain and hydration status exceeded recommended limits. Methods Fifteen blast crew personnel operating in the tropics were monitored across a 12-hour shift. Heart rate, core body temperature, and urine-specific gravity were continuously recorded. Participants self-reported fluid consumption and completed a heat illness symptom inventory. Results Core body temperature averaged 37.46 +/- 0.13[degrees]C, with the group maximum 37.98 +/- 0.19[degrees]C. Mean urine-specific gravity was 1.024 +/- 0.007, with 78.6% of samples 1.020 or more. Seventy-three percent of workers reported at least one symptom of heat illness during the shift. Conclusions Core body temperature remained within the recommended limits; however, more than 80% of workers were dehydrated before commencing the shift, and tended to remain so for the duration.

Chronic activation of the low affinity site of β1-adrenoceptors stimulates haemodynamics but exacerbates pressure-overload cardiac remodelling

Background and Purpose The β1-adrenoceptor has at least two binding sites, high and low affinity sites (β1H and β1L, respectively), which mediate cardiostimulation. While β1H-adrenoceptor can be blocked by all clinically used β-blockers, β1L-adrenoceptor is relatively resistant to blockade. Thus, chronic β1L-adrenoceptor activation may mediate persistent cardiostimulation, despite the concurrent blockade of β1H-adrenoceptors. Hence, it is important to determine the potential significance of β1L-adrenoceptors in vivo, particularly in pathological situations. Experimental Approach C57Bl/6 male mice were used. Chronic (4 or 8 weeks) β1L-adrenoceptor activation was achieved by treatment, via osmotic mini pumps, with (-)-CGP12177 (10 mg·kg−1·day−1). Cardiac function was assessed by echocardiography and micromanometry. Key Results (-)-CGP12177 treatment of healthy mice increased heart rate and left ventricular (LV) contractility. (-)-CGP12177 treatment of mice subjected to transverse aorta constriction (TAC), during weeks 4–8 or 4–12 after TAC, led to a positive inotropic effect and exacerbated fibrogenic signalling while cardiac hypertrophy tended to be more severe. (-)-CGP12177 treatment of mice with TAC also exacerbated the myocardial expression of hypertrophic, fibrogenic and inflammatory genes compared to untreated TAC mice. Washout of (-)-CGP12177 revealed a more pronounced cardiac dysfunction after 12 weeks of TAC. Conclusions and Implications β1L-adrenoceptor activation provides functional support to the heart, in both normal and pathological (pressure overload) situations. Sustained β1L-adrenoceptor activation in the diseased heart exacerbates LV remodelling and therefore may promote disease progression from compensatory hypertrophy to heart failure.

Age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth

Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity (PA) in a population-based sample of students in grades 1–12. Methods Participants (185 male, 190 female) wore a CSA 7164 accelerometer for 7 consecutive days. To examine age-related trends, students were grouped as follows: grades 1–3 (N = 90), grades 4–6 (N = 91), grades 7–9 (N = 96), and grades 10–12 (N = 92). Bouts of PA and minutes spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and vigorous PA (VPA) were examined. Results Daily MVPA and VPA exhibited a significant inverse relationship with grade level, with the largest differences occurring between grades 1–3 and 4–6. Boys were more active than girls; however, for overall PA, the magnitudes of the gender differences were modest. Participation in continuous 20-min bouts of PA was low to nonexistent. Conclusion Our results support the notion that PA declines rapidly during childhood and adolescence and that accelerometers are feasible alternatives to self-report methods in moderately sized population-level surveillance studies.

Conducting accelerometer-based activity assessments in field-based research

Purpose The purpose of this review is to address important methodological issues related to conducting accelerometer-based assessments of physical activity in free-living individuals. Methods We review the extant scientific literature for empirical information related to the following issues: product selection, number of accelerometers needed, placement of accelerometers, epoch length, and days of monitoring required to estimate habitual physical activity. We also discuss the various options related to distributing and collecting monitors and strategies to enhance compliance with the monitoring protocol. Results No definitive evidence exists currently to indicate that one make and model of accelerometer is more valid and reliable than another. Selection of accelerometer therefore remains primarily an issue of practicality, technical support, and comparability with other studies. Studies employing multiple accelerometers to estimate energy expenditure report only marginal improvements in explanatory power. Accelerometers are best placed on hip or the lower back. Although the issue of epoch length has not been studied in adults, the use of count cut points based on 1-min time intervals maybe inappropriate in children and may result in underestimation of physical activity. Among adults, 3–5 d of monitoring is required to reliably estimate habitual physical activity. Among children and adolescents, the number of monitoring days required ranges from 4 to 9 d, making it difficult to draw a definitive conclusion for this population. Face-to-face distribution and collection of accelerometers is probably the best option in field-based research, but delivery and return by express carrier or registered mail is a viable option. Conclusion Accelerometer-based activity assessments requires careful planning and the use of appropriate strategies to increase compliance.

Physical activity and determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children

OBJECTIVE To compare the physical activity (PA) patterns and the hypothesized psychosocial and environmental determinants of PA in an ethnically diverse sample of obese and non-obese middle school children. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SUBJECTS One-hundred and thirty-three non-obese and 54 obese sixth grade children (mean age of 11.4 +/-0.6). Obesity status determined using the age-, race- and gender-specific 95th percentile for BMI from NHANES-1. MEASUREMENTS Objective measurements were collected of PA over a 7-day period using the CSA 7164 accelerometer: total daily counts; daily moderate (3-5.9 METs) physical activity (MPA); daily vigorous physical activity (greater than or equal to 6 METs; VPA); and weekly number of 5, 10 and 20 min bouts of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (greater than or equal to 3 METs, MVPA). Self-report measures were collected of PA self-efficacy; social influences regarding PA, beliefs about PA outcomes; perceived PA levels of parents and peers, access to sporting and/or fitness equipment at home, involvement in community-based PA organizations; participation in community sports teams; and hours spent watching television or playing video games. RESULTS Compared to their non-obese counterparts, obese children exhibited significantly lower daily accumulations of total counts, MPA and VPA as well as significantly fewer 5, 10 and 20 min bouts of MVPA. Obese children reported significantly lower levels of PA self-efficacy, were involved in significantly fewer community organizations promoting PA and were significantly less likely to report their father or male guardian as physically active. CONCLUSIONS The results are consistent with the hypothesis that physical inactivity is an important contributing factor in the maintenance of childhood obesity. Interventions to promote PA in obese children should endeavor to boost self-efficacy perceptions regarding exercise, increase awareness of, and access to, community PA outlets, and increase parental modeling of PA.

Clinical use of objective measures of physical activity

With measurement of physical activity becoming more common in clinical practice, it is imperative that healthcare professionals become more knowledgeable about the different methods available to objectively measure physical activity behaviour. Objective measures do not rely on information provided by the patient, but instead measure and record the biomechanical or physiological consequences of performing physical activity, often in real time. As such, objective measures are not subject to the reporting bias or recall problems associated with self-report methods. The purpose of this article was to provide an overview of the different methods used to objectively measure physical activity in clinical practice. The review was delimited to heart rate monitoring, accelerometers and pedometers since their small size, low participant burden and relatively low cost make these objective measures appropriate for use in clinical practice settings. For each measure, strengths and weakness were discussed; and whenever possible, literature-based examples of implementation were provided.

Alterations in cervical muscle activity in functional and stressful tasks in female office workers with neck pain

This study determined differences between computer workers with varying levels of neck pain in terms of work stressors, employee strain, electromyography (EMG) amplitude and heart rate response to various tasks. Participants included 85 workers (33, no pain; 38, mild pain; 14, moderate pain) and 22 non-working controls. Work stressors evaluated were job demands, decision authority, and social support. Heart rate was recorded during three tasks: copy-typing, typing with superimposed stress and a colour word task. Measures included electromyography signals from the sternocleidomastoid (SCM), anterior scalene (AS), cervical extensor (CE) and upper trapezius (UT) muscles bilaterally. Results showed no difference between groups in work stressors or employee strain measures. Workers with and without pain had higher measured levels of EMG amplitude in SCM, AS and CE muscles during the tasks than controls (all P < 0.02). In workers with neck pain, the UT had difficulty in switching off on completion of tasks compared with controls and workers without pain. There was an increase in heart rate, perceived tension and pain and decrease in accuracy for all groups during the stressful tasks with symptomatic workers producing more typing errors than controls and workers without pain. These findings suggest an altered muscle recruitment pattern in the neck flexor and extensor muscles. Whether this is a consequence or source of the musculoskeletal disorder cannot be determined from this study. It is possible that workers currently without symptoms may be at risk of developing a musculoskeletal disorder.

Correlates of objectively measured physical activity in preadolescent youth

Objective The purpose of this study was to identify the psychosocial and environmental correlates of objectively measured physical activity behavior in a diverse sample of sixth-grade students. Design Cross-sectional. Participants and Setting One hundred ninety-eight sixth-grade students from 4 public middle schools in Columbia, South Carolina. The study group was 52.0% female, 55.1% African-American, with a mean age of 11.4 +/- 0.6 years. Main Outcome Measures Time spent in moderate physical activity (MPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) was assessed using a uniaxial accelerometer (CSA WAM 7164) (Computer Science and Applications Inc., Shalimar, FL). Determinant variables included: age, gender, race/ethnicity (demographic); physical activity self-efficacy, social norms related to physical activity, and beliefs regarding physical activity outcomes (psychosocial); and perceived physical activity habits of parents and peers, involvement in community physical activity organizations, involvement in community-based sports programs, access to fitness/sporting equipment at home, and self-reported hours spent watching television or playing video games (environmental). Results For boys, physical activity self-efficacy, social norms related to physical activity, and involvement in community physical activity organizations were salient predictors of MPA and VPA. Among girls, only physical activity self-efficacy emerged as a clear predictor of objectively measured physical activity. Conclusions These findings are consistent with previous studies using self-reported physical activity and suggest that interventions to increase physical. activity in preadolescent youth should endeavor to boost physical activity self-efficacy by offering a wide selection of enjoyable, developmentally-appropriate physical activity options.

Tracking of physical activity in young children

The purpose of this study was to determine whether physical activity behavior tracks during early childhood. Forty-seven children (22 males, 25 females) aged 3-4 yr at the beginning of the study were followed over a 3-yr period. Heart rates were measured at least 2 and up to 4 d . yr(-1) with a Quantum XL Telemetry heart rate monitor. Physical activity was quantified as the percentage of observed minutes between 3:00 and 6:00 p.m. during which heart rate was 50% or more above individual resting heart rate (PAHR-50 Index). Tracking of physical activity was analyzed using Pearson and Spearman correlations. Yearly PAHR-50 index tertiles were created and examined for percent agreement and Cohen's kappa. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to calculate the intraclass correlation coefficient across the 3 yr of the study. Spearman rank order correlations ranged from 0.57 to 0.66 (P < 0.0001). Percent agreement ranged from 49% to 62%. The intraclass R for the 3 yr was 0.81. It was concluded that physical activity behavior tends to track during early childhood.

Using objective physical activity measures with youth : How many days of monitoring are needed?

Purpose The purpose of this study was to establish the minimal number of days of monitoring required for accelerometers to assess usual physical activity in children. Methods A total of 381 students (189 M, 192 F) wore a CSA 7164 uniaxial accelerometer for seven consecutive days. To examine age-related trends students were grouped as follows: Group I: grades 1-3 (N = 92); Group II: grades 4-6 (N = 98); Group III: grades 7-9 (N = 97); Group IV: grades 10-12 (N = 94). Average daily time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was calculated from minute-by-minute activity counts using the regression equation developed by Freedson et al. (1997). Results Compared with adolescents in grades 7 to 12, children in grades 1 to 6 exhibited less day-to-day variability in MVPA behavior. Spearman-Brown analysts indicated that between 4 and 5 d of monitoring would be necessary to a achieve a reliability of 0.80 in children, and between 8 and 9 d of monitoring would be necessary to achieve a reliability of 0.80 in adolescents. Within all grade levels, the 7-d monitoring protocol produced acceptable estimates of daily participation in MVPA (R = 0.76 (0.71-0.81) to 0.87 (0.84-0.90)). Compared with weekdays, children exhibited significantly higher levels of MVPA on weekends, whereas adolescents exhibited significantly lower levels of MVPA on weekends. Principal components analysis revealed two distinct time components for MVPA during the day for children (early morning, rest of the day), and three distinct time components for MVPA during the day for adolescents (morning, afternoon, early evening). Conclusions These results indicate that a 7-d monitoring protocol provides reliable estimates of usual physical activity behavior in children and adolescents and accounts for potentially important differences in weekend versus weekday activity behavior as well as differences in activity patterns within a given day.

Validity of the computer science and applications (CSA) activity monitor in children

Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of the CSA activity monitor as a measure of children's physical activity using energy expenditure (EE) as a criterion measure. Methods Thirty subjects aged 10 to 14 performed three 5-min treadmill bouts at 3, 4, and 6 mph, respectively. While on the treadmill, subjects wore CSA (WAM 7164) activity monitors on the right and left hips. (V) over dot O-2 was monitored continuously by an automated system. EE was determined by multiplying the average (V) over dot O-2 by the caloric equivalent of the mean respiratory exchange ratio. Results Repeated measures ANOVA indicated that both CSA monitors were sensitive to changes in treadmill speed. Mean activity counts from each CSA unit were not significantly different and the intraclass reliability coefficient for the two CSA units across all speeds was 0.87. Activity counts from both CSA units were strongly correlated with EE (r = 0.86 and 0.87, P < 0.001). An EE prediction equation was developed from 20 randomly selected subjects and cross-validated on the remaining 10. The equation predicted mean EE within 0.01 kcal.min(-1). The correlation between actual and predicted values was 0.93 (P < 0.01) and the SEE was 0.93 kcal.min(-1). Conclusion These data indicate that the CSA monitor is a valid and reliable tool for quantifying treadmill walking and running in children.

The use of uniaxial and triaxial accelerometers to measure children's "free-play" physical activity

In order to effectively measure the physical activity of children, objective monitoring devices must be able to quantify the intermittent and nonlinear movement of free play. The purpose of this study was to investigate the validity of the Computer Science and Applications (CSA) uniaxial accelerometer and the TriTrac-R3D triaxial accelerometer with respect to their ability to measure 8 "free-play" activities of different intensity. The activities ranged from light to very vigorous in intensity and included activities such as throwing and catching, hopscotch, and basketball. Twenty-eight children, ages 9 to 11, wore a CSA and a heart rate monitor while performing the activities. Sixteen children also wore a Tritrac. Counts from the CSA, Tritrac, and heart rates corresponding to the last 3 min of the 5 min spent at each activity were averaged and used in correlation analyses. Across all 8 activities, Tritrac counts were significantly correlated with predicted MET level (r= 0.69) and heart rate (r= 0.73). Correlations between CSA output, predicted MET level (0.43), and heart rate (0.64) were also significant but were lower than those observed for the Tritrac. These data indicate that accelerometers are an appropriate methodology for measuring children's free-play physical activities.