Consumer misbehaviour during professional service encounters

To date, consumer behaviour research is still over-focused on the functional rather than the dysfunctional. Both empirical and anecdotal evidence suggest that service organisations are burdened with the concept of consumer sovereignty, while consumers freely flout the ‘rules’ of social exchange and behave in deviant and dysfunctional ways. Further, the current scope of consumer misbehaviour research suggests that the phenomenon has principally been studied in the context of economically-focused exchange. This limits our current understanding of consumer misbehaviour to service encounters that are more transactional than relational in nature. Consequently, this thesis takes a Social Exchange approach to consumer misbehaviour and reports a three-stage multi-method study that examined the nature and antecedents of consumer misbehaviour in professional services. It addresses the following broad research question: What is the nature of consumer misbehaviour during professional service encounters? Study One initially explored the nature of consumer misbehaviour in professional service encounters using critical incident technique (CIT) within 38 semi-structured in-depth interviews. The study was designed to develop a better understanding of what constitutes consumer misbehaviour from a service provider’s perspective. Once the nature of consumer misbehaviour had been qualified, Study Two focused on developing and refining calibrated items that formed Guttman-like scales for two consumer misbehaviour constructs: one for the most theoretically-central type of consumer misbehaviour identified in Study One (i.e. refusal to participate) and one for the most well-theorised and salient type of consumer misbehaviour (i.e. verbal abuse) identified in Study One to afford a comparison. This study used Rasch modelling to investigate whether it was possible to calibrate the escalating severity of a series of decontextualised behavioural descriptors in a valid and reliable manner. Creating scales of calibrated items that capture the variation in severity of different types of consumer misbehaviour identified in Study One allowed for a more valid and reliable investigation of the antecedents of such behaviour. Lastly, Study Three utilised an experimental design to investigate three key antecedents of consumer misbehaviour: (1) the perceived quality of the service encounter [drawn from Fullerton and Punj’s (1993) model of aberrant consumer behaviour], (2) the violation of consumers’ perceptions of justice and equity [drawn from Rousseau’s (1989) Psychological Contract Theory], and (3) consumers’ affective responses to exchange [drawn from Weiss and Cropanzano’s (1996) Affective Events Theory]. Investigating three key antecedents of consumer misbehaviour confirmed the newly-developed understanding of the nature of consumer misbehaviour during professional service encounters. Combined, the results of the three studies suggest that consumer misbehaviour is characteristically different within professional services. The most salient and theoretically-central behaviours can be measured using increasingly severe decontextualised behavioural descriptors. Further, increasingly severe forms of consumer misbehaviour are likely to occur as a response to consumer anger at low levels of interpersonal service quality. These findings have a range of key implications for both marketing theory and practice.

Understanding the role of knowledge in the practice of expert nephrology nurses in Australia

This paper, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, aims to explore the role of knowledge in expert practice. Using grounded theory methodology, the study involved 17 registered nurses who were practicing in a metropolitan renal unit in New South Wales, Australia. Concurrent data collection and analysis was undertaken, incorporating participants' observations and interviews. Having extensive nephrology nursing knowledge was a striking characteristic of a nursing expert. Expert nurses clearly relied on and utilized extensive nephrology nursing knowledge to practice. Of importance for nursing, the results of this study indicate that domain-specific knowledge is a crucial feature of expert practice.

Uncovering the evidence of non-expert nephrology nursing practice

Expertise in nursing has been widely studied although there have been no previous studies into what constitutes expertise in nephrology (renal) nursing. This paper, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, provides evidence of the characteristics and practices of non-expert nephrology nurses. Using the grounded theory method, the study took place in one renal unit in New South Wales, Australia, and involved six non-expert and 11 expert nurses. Sampling was purposive then theoretical. Simultaneous data collection and analysis using participant observation, review of nursing documentation and semistructured interviews was undertaken. The study revealed a three-stage skills-acquisitive process that was identified as non-expert, experienced non-expert and expert stages. Non-expert nurses showed superficial nephrology nursing knowledge and limited experience; they were acquiring basic nephrology nursing skills and possessed a narrow focus of practice.

Recognition of expertise : an important concept in the acquisition of nephrology nursing expertise

The present article, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, aims to explore the concept of recognition of expertise. The study used grounded theory methodology and involved 17 registered nurses who were practising in a metropolitan renal unit in New South Wales, Australia. Concurrent data collection and analysis was undertaken, incorporating participant observations and interviews. According to nurses in this study, patients, doctors and other nurses recognized that some nurses were experts while others were not. In addition, being trusted, being a role model and teaching others were important components of being recognized as an expert nephrology nurse. Of importance for nursing, the results of the present study indicate that knowledge and experience are not sufficient to ensure expert practice; recognition of expertise by others is an important function of expertise acquisition.

Producing the magnum opus : A metaphor for nephrology nursing expertise acquisition

Aim. This paper elucidates the nature of metaphor and the conditions necessary to its use as an analytic device in qualitative research, and describes how the use of metaphor assisted in the analytic processes of a grounded theory study of nephrology nursing expertise. Background. The use of metaphor is pervasive in everyday thought, language and action. It is an important means for the comprehension and management of everyday life, and makes challenging or problematic concepts easier to explain. Metaphors are also pervasive in quantitative and qualitative research for the same reason. In both everyday life and in research, their use may be implicit or explicit. Methods. The study using grounded theory methodology took place in one renal unit in New South Wales, Australia between 1999 and 2000 and included six non-expert and 11 expert nurses. It involved simultaneous data collection and analysis using participant observation, semi-structured interviews and review of nursing documentation. Findings. A three stage skills-acquisitive process was identified in which an orchestral metaphor was used to explain the relationships between stages and to satisfactorily capture the data coded within each stage. Conclusion. Metaphors create images, clarify and add depth to meanings and, if used appropriately and explicitly in qualitative research, can capture data at highly conceptual levels. Metaphors also assist in explaining the relationship between findings in a clear and coherent manner. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

The acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise : A grounded theory study

Aims and objectives. This purpose of this study was to describe the process of expertise acquisition in nephrology nursing practice. Background. It has been recognized for a number of decades that experts, compared with other practitioners in a number of professions and occupations, are the most knowledgeable and effective, in terms of both the quantity and quality of output. Studies relating to expertise have been undertaken in a range of nursing contexts and specialties; to date, however, none have been undertaken which focus on nephrology nursing. Design. This study, using grounded theory methodology, took place in one renal unit in New South Wales, Australia and involved six non-expert and 11 expert nurses. Methods. Simultaneous data collection and analysis took place using participant observation, semi-structured interviews and review of nursing documentation. Findings. The study revealed a three-stage skills-acquisitive process that was identified as non-expert, experienced non-expert and expert stages. Each stage was typified by four characteristics, which altered during the acquisitive process; these were knowledge, experience, skill and focus. Conclusion. This was the first study to explore nephrology nursing expertise and uncovered new aspects of expertise not documented in the literature and it also made explicit other areas, which had only been previously implied. Relevance to clinical practice. Of significance to nursing, the exercise of expertise is a function of the recognition of expertise by others and it includes the blurring of the normal boundaries of professional practice. © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Yorkshire Cities and Culture : A Review of Current Thinking

This report was commissioned by the Yorkshire Cultural Observatory and the Yorkshire & Humber Key Cities group. It is not a strategy document but an attempt to give an overview of the current thinking within academia and policy-making about the cultural agenda for regions and regional cities in the UK. In particular it looks at the challenges for Yorkshire cities in the context of the current and potential regional cultural offer. The report is a snapshot of current academic and policy thinking, but it also draws on a series of interviews conducted with policymakers in the five key cities as well as regional agencies. These interviews were limited in number and are not meant to be a comprehensive consultation exercise. Rather they acted to focus some of the issues raised by the literature and policy review and to develop suggestions around priority areas for the region.

Artful inquiry : an arts-based facilitation approach for individual and organisational learning and development

The research undertaken in these two major doctoral studies investigates the field of artsbased learning, a pedagogical approach to individual and organisational learning and development, my professional creative facilitation practice and development as a researcher. While the studies are stand-alone projects they are intended to build on each other in order to tell the evolving story of my research and professional practice. The first study combines The Role of Arts-based Learning in a Creative Economy; The Need for Artistry in Professional Education the art of knowing what to do when you don’t know what to do and Lines of Inquiry: Making Sense of Research and Professional Practice. The Role of Arts-based Learning in a Creative Economy provides an overview of the field of arts-based learning in business. The study focuses on the relevant literature and interviews with people working in the field. The paper argues that arts-based learning is a valuable addition to organisations for building a culture of creativity and innovation. The Need for Artistry in Professional Education continues that investigation. It explores the way artists approach their work and considers what skills and capabilities from artistic practice can be applied to other professions’ practices. From this research the Sphere of Professional Artistry model is developed and depicts the process of moving toward professional artistry. Lines of Inquiry: making sense of research and professional practice through artful inquiry is a self-reflective study. It explores my method of inquiry as a researcher and as a creative facilitation practitioner using arts-based learning processes to facilitate groups of people for learning, development and change. It discusses how my research and professional practice influence and inspire the other and draws on cased studies. The second major research study Artful Inquiry: Arts-based Learning for Inquiry, Reflection and Action in Professional Practice is a one year practice-led inquiry. It continues the research into arts-based and aesthetic learning experiences and my arts-based facilitation practice. The research is conducted with members of a Women’s Network in a large government service agency. It develops the concept of ‘Artful Inquiry’’ a creative, holistic, and embodied approach for facilitation, inquiry, learning, reflection, and action. Storytelling as Inquiry is used as a methodology for understanding participants’ experiences of being involved in arts-based learning experiences. The study reveals the complex and emergent nature of practice and research. It demonstrates what it can mean to do practice-led research with others, within an organisational context, and to what effect.

Constructability improvement in sea water intake structure

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the process, and analyse the implementation of constructability improvement and innovation result during the planning and design for sea water intake structure of fertilizer plant project. Design/methodology/approach The research methodology approach is case study method at project level. This constructability improvement process was investigated by using constructability implementation check lists, direct observation, documented lesson learned analysis and key personnel interviews. Findings The case study shows that the implementation of constructability during planning and design stage for this sea water intake structure has increased the project performance as well as improved the schedule by 5 months (14.21%) and reduced the project cost by 15.35%. Research limitations/implications This case study was limited to three (3) previous sea water intake projects as references and one (1) of new method sea water intake structure at fertilizer plant project. Practical implications A constructability improvement check list using theory and lesson learned for the specific construction project was documented. Originality/value The findings support the relevant study of constructability and provide specific lesson learned for three (3) previous project and one (1) of the new innovation method of the construction project and documented by the company.

Co-constructing self-efficacy narratives : a study of four mature age university students

This thesis reports on a study in which research participants, four mature aged females starting an undergraduate degree at a regional Australian university, collaborated with the researcher in co-constructing a self-efficacy narrative. For the purpose of the study, self-efficacy was conceptualized as a means by which an individual initiates action to engage in a task or set of tasks, applies effort to perform the task or set of tasks, and persists in the face of obstacles encountered in order to achieve successful completion of the task or set of tasks. Qualitative interviews were conducted with the participants, initially investigating their respective life histories for an understanding of how they made the decision to embark on their respective academic program. Additional data were generated from a written exercise, prompting participants to furnish specific examples of self-efficacy. These data were incorporated into the individual's self-efficacy narrative, produced as the outcome of the "narrative analysis". Another aspect of the study entailed "analysis of narrative" in which analytic procedures were used to identify themes common to the self-efficacy narratives. Five main themes were identified: (a) participants' experience of schooling . for several participants their formative experience of school was not always positive, and yet their narratives demonstrated their agency in persevering and taking on university-level studies as mature aged persons; (b) recognition of family as an early influence . these influences were described as being both positive, in the sense of being supportive and encouraging, as well as posing obstacles that participants had to overcome in order to pursue their goals; (c) availability of supportive persons – the support of particular persons was acknowledged as a factor that enabled participants to persist in their respective endeavours; (d) luck or chance factors were recognised as placing participants at the right place at the right time, from which circumstances they applied considerable effort in order to convert the opportunity into a successful outcome; and (e) self-efficacy was identified as a major theme found in the narratives. The study included an evaluation of the research process by participants. A number of themes were identified in respect of the manner in which the research process was experienced as a helpful process. Participants commented that: (a) the research process was helpful in clarifying their respective career goals; (b) they appreciated opportunities provided by the research process to view their life from a different perspective and to better understand what motivated them, and what their preferred learning styles were; (c) their past successes in a range of different spheres were made more evident to them as they were guided in self-reflection, and their self-efficacious behaviour was affirmed; and (d) the opportunities provided by their participation in the research process to identify strengths of which they had not been consciously aware, to find confirmation of strengths they knew they possessed, and in some instances to rectify misconceptions they had held about aspects of their personality. The study made three important contributions to knowledge. Firstly, it provided a detailed explication of a qualitative narrative method in exploring self-efficacy, with the potential for application to other issues in educational, counselling and psychotherapy research. Secondly, it consolidated and illustrated social cognitive theory by proposing a dynamic model of self-efficacy, drawing on constructivist and interpretivist paradigms and extending extant theory and models. Finally, the study made a contribution to the debate concerning the nexus of qualitative research and counselling by providing guidelines for ethical practice in both endeavours for the practitioner-researcher.

Self-management of cancer treatment-related fatigue, nausea, vomiting and oral mucositis in Chinese cancer patients

Background: Treatment-related symptoms continue to place a significant burden on many cancer patients. Many side effects require patients to engage in a range of self-management actions. While some studies have explored self-management of treatment-related side effects in Western settings, very few studies were identified that described the self-management practices of cancer patients in China. Objective: The purposes of this study are to: (1) Investigate Chinese cancer patients. self-management behaviours in dealing with the fatigue, nausea/vomiting and oral mucositis that result from treatment, as well as the perceived effectiveness of these behaviours and related self-efficacy in performing them. (2) Explore factors influencing symptom self-management behaviours using the Cancer Symptom Self-management Framework based on Grey, Knafl and McCorkle.s (2006) self-management framework as a guide. Methods: This study was divided into two phases. Phase One consisted of the translation and modification of two instruments. The adaptation of these instruments to ensure applicability in the Chinese context was achieved through semi-structured interviews with six cancer patients, and content evaluation with eight experienced oncology nurses. A pilot study was conducted with nine cancer patients to trial the questionnaire set in the Chinese context. Based on the results of Phase One, Phase Two involved a cross-sectional survey of Chinese cancer patients undergoing cancer treatment using these instruments. A total of 277 chemotherapy patients with fatigue and/or nausea and vomiting, and 100 radiotherapy patients with oral mucositis were surveyed. Results: Participants in this study reported a variety of self-management behaviours to cope with fatigue, nausea, vomiting and oral mucositis. There are some consistencies as well disparities between strategies that are frequently used and those rated as effective. For fatigue self-management, participants were more likely to use strategies related to rest and sleep, while activity enhancement strategies were rated as achieving higher relief. For nausea and vomiting self-management, dietary modification and taking medication were most frequently used and rated as moderately effective. Psychological strategies were used by more than a third of participants and were rated as mildly effective. Some other infrequently used strategies, such as distraction by keeping busy and acupressure, were rated as moderately effective. For oral mucositis self-management, having soft, bland food and keeping the mouth moisturised were most frequently reported and they were rated as achieving moderate relief. A prescribed mouthwash was used by most but not all participants and brought moderate relief. In general, patients had low-to-moderate self-efficacy in nausea and vomiting self-management behaviours, moderate self-efficacy in fatigue self-management behaviours, and low-to-moderate self-efficacy in oral mucositis self-management behaviours. In terms of the factors influencing symptom self-management, different predictors were identified affecting engagement in fatigue, nausea/vomiting and oral mucositis self-management behaviours. Self-efficacy scores of different behaviours were consistently found to be a positive predictor of the relief level from corresponding behaviours, after controlling for other variables. Perceived social support from health care professionals was identified as an important factor influencing nausea and vomiting self-management behaviours, while neighbourhood support was important for fatigue self-management. In addition, symptom distress was identified as an important factor influencing nausea and vomiting self-management. Conclusion: Similar to reports from overseas, Chinese cancer patients initiate a wide range of self-management behaviours in response to treatment-related side effects. While some behaviours were reported to provide relief, many did not. Given these results, this study has a number of practical implications for health care professionals, particularly in relation to developing tailored self-management programs for fatigue, nausea, vomiting and oral mucositis. Additionally, this study suggests a number of theoretical implications and directions for future research. It is envisaged that these recommendations may pave the way for further studies understanding and promoting cancer symptom self-management in Chinese people affected by cancer.

Measurement and correlates of caregiver self-efficacy amongst family caregivers of persons with dementia living in Shanghai, China

Background: Caring for family members with dementia can be a long-term, burdensome task resulting in physical and emotional distress and impairment. Research has demonstrated significantly lower levels of selfefficacy among family caregivers of people with dementia (CGs) than caregivers of relatives with non-dementia diseases. Intervention studies have also suggested that the mental and physical health of dementia CGs could be improved through the enhancement of their self-efficacy. However, studies are limited in terms of the influences of caregiver self-efficacy on caregiver behaviour, subjective burden and health-related quality of life. Of particular note is that there are no studies on the applicability of caregiver self-efficacy in the social context of China. Objective: The purpose of this thesis was to undertake theoretical exploration using Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory to 1) revise the Revised Caregiving Self-Efficacy Scale (C-RCSES) (Steffen, McKibbin, Zeiss, Gallagher-Thompson, & Bandura, 2002), and 2) explore determinants of caregiver self-efficacy and the role of caregiver self-efficacy and other conceptual constructs (including CGs’ socio-demographic characteristics, CRs’ impairment and CGs’ social support) in explaining and predicting caregiver behaviour, subjective burden and health-related quality of life among CGs in China. Methodology: Two studies were undertaken: a qualitative elicitation study with 10 CGs; and a cross-sectional survey with 196 CGs. In the first study, semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore caregiver behaviours and corresponding challenges for their performance. The findings of the study assisted in the development of the initial items and domains of the Chinese version of the Revised Caregiving Self-Efficacy Scale (C-RCSES). Following changes to items in the scale, the second study, a cross-sectional survey with 196 CGs was conducted to evaluate the psychometric properties of C-RCSES and to test a hypothesised self-efficacy model of family caregiving adapted from Bandura’s theory (1997). Results: 35 items were generated from the qualitative data. The content validity of the C-RCSES was assessed and ensured in Study One before being used for the cross-sectional survey. Eight items were removed and five subscales (caregiver self-efficacy for gathering information about treatment, symptoms and health care; obtaining support; responding to problematic behaviours; management of household, personal and medical care; and controlling upsetting thoughts about caregiving) were identified after principal component factor analysis on the cross-sectional survey data. The reliability of the scale is acceptable: the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the whole scale and for each subscale were all over .80; and the fourweek test-retest reliabilities for the whole scale and for each subscale ranged from .64 to .85. The concurrent, convergent and divergent validity were also acceptable. CGs reported moderate levels of caregiver self-efficacy. Furthermore, the level of self-efficacy for management of household, personal and medical care was relatively high in comparison to those of the other four domains of caregiver self-efficacy. Caregiver self-efficacy was also significantly influenced by CGs’ socio-demographic characteristics and the caregiving external factors (CR impairment and social support that CGs obtained). The level of caregiver behaviour that CGs reported was higher than that reported in other Chinese research. CGs’ socio-demographics significantly influenced caregiver behaviour, whereas caregiver self-efficacy did not influence caregiver behaviour. Regarding the two external factors, CGs who cared for highly impaired relatives reported high levels of caregiver behaviour, but social support did not influence caregiver behaviour. Regarding caregiver subjective burden and health-related quality of life, CGs reported moderate levels of subjective burden, and their level of healthrelated quality of life was significantly lower than that of the general population in China. The findings also indicated that CGs’ subjective burden and health-related quality of life were influenced by all major factors in the hypothesised model, including CGs’ socio-demographics, CRs’ impairment, social support that CGs obtained, caregiver self-efficacy and caregiver behaviour. Of these factors, caregiver self-efficacy and social support significantly improved their subjective burden and health-related quality of life; whereas caregiver behaviour and CRs’ impairment were detrimental to CGs, such as increasing subjective burden and worsening health-related quality of life. Conclusion: While requiring further exploration, the qualitative study was the first qualitative research conducted in China to provide an in-depth understanding of CGs’ caregiving experience, including their major caregiver behaviours and the corresponding challenges. Meanwhile, although the C-RCSES needs further psychometric testing, it is a useful tool for assessing caregiver self-efficacy in Chinese populations. Results of the qualitative and quantitative study provide useful information for future studies regarding the explanatory power of caregiver self-efficacy to caregiver behaviour, subjective burden and health-related quality of life. Additionally, integrated with Bandura’s theory, the findings from the quantitative study also suggested a further study exploring the role of outcome expectations in caregiver behaviour, subjective burden and healthrelated quality of life.

'Being-in-the-world-of-care' : the lived experiences of older people receiving community aged care packages in Queensland

It has been recognised in current literature that, in general, Australia’s population is ageing and that older people are increasingly choosing to continue to live in the community in their own homes for as long as possible. Such factors of social change are expected to lead to larger numbers of older people requiring community care services for longer periods. Despite this, there is little information available in the literature on the perceptions and experiences of older people regarding community-based care and support. This study explores the lived experience of a small group of older people living in South East Queensland who were receiving a level of care consistent with the Community Aged Care Package (CACP). It also sought to examine the impact and meaning of that care on the older person’s overall lifestyle, autonomy, and personal satisfaction. In-depth interviews were undertaken with these older people, and were analysed using Heidegger’s interpretive hermeneutical phenomenological approach. Shared narratives were then explored using Ricoeur’s narrative analysis framework. In order to sensitise the researcher to the unconscious or symbolic aspects of the care experience, Wolfensberger’s social role valorization theory (SRV) was also utilised during a third phase of analysis. Methodological rigour was strengthened within this study through the use of reflexivity and an in-depth member check discussion that was conducted with each participant. The interviews revealed there were significant differences in expectations, understanding, and perceptions between older people and their carers or service providers. The older person perceived care primarily in relational terms, and clearly preferred active participation in their care and a consistent relationship with a primary carer. Older people also sought to maintain their sense of autonomy, lifestyle, home environment, routines, and relationships, as closely as possible to those that existed prior to their requiring assistance. However, these expectations were not always supported by the care model. On the whole, service providers did not always understand what older people perceived was important within the care context. Carers seldom looked beyond the provision of assistance with specific daily tasks to consider the real impact of care on the older person. The study identified that older people reported a range of experiences when receiving care in their own homes. While some developed healthy and supportive connections with their carers, others experienced ageism, abuse, and exploitation. Unsatisfactory interactions at times resulted in a loss, to varying degrees, of their independence, their possessions, and their connectedness with others. There is therefore a need for service providers to pay more attention to the perceptions and self-perceived needs of older people, to avoid unintended or unnecessary negative impacts occurring within care provision. The study provides valuable information regarding the older person’s experience that will assist in supporting the further development and improvement of this model of care. It is proposed that these insights will enable CACPs to cater more closely to the actual needs and preferences of older people, and to avoid causing preventable harm to care recipients.

Barriers to information technology governance adoption : a preliminary empirical investigation

The adoption of IT Governance (ITG) continues to be an important topic for research. Many researchers have focused their attention on how these practices are currently being implemented in the many diverse areas and industries. Literature shows that a majority of these studies have only been based on industries and organizations in developed countries. There exist very few researches that look specifically within the context of a developing country. Furthermore, there seems to be a lack of research on identifying the barriers or inhibitors to IT Governance adoption within the context of an emerging yet still developing Asian country. This research sets out to justify, substantiate and improve on a priori model developed to study the barriers to the adoption of ITG practice using qualitative data obtained through a series of semi-structured interviews conducted on organizations in Malaysia.

The changing role of the supervisory board chairman: the case of the Netherlands (1997-2007)

Over the last ten years, the corporate governance context in most Western countries has changed as a result of irregularities, increased regulation, heightened societal expectations and shareholder activism. This paper examines the impact of the changing context on the role of chairmen of supervisory boards in the Netherlands. Based on a combination of thirty semi-structured interviews with board members of leading Dutch corporations and secondary data on the position of supervisory board chairmen at the top-100 listed firms in the Netherlands, the study reveals that board chairmen have become increasingly involved in both their control and service roles. While the demographics (i.e., age, tenure, gender and nationality) of chairmen have hardly changed over the last decade, chairmen are spending considerably more time on boards and committees, have reduced the number of board interlocks and have become more active on the forefront of the corporate governance discussion. The paper highlights several implications for scholars and practitioners.