Soil moisture monitoring at the field scale using neutron probe

Measurement of the moisture variation in soils is required for geotechnical design and research because soil properties and behavior can vary as moisture content changes. The neutron probe, which was developed more than 40 years ago, is commonly used to monitor soil moisture variation in the field. This study reports a full-scale field monitoring of soil moisture using a neutron moisture probe for a period of more than 2 years in the Melbourne (Australia) region. On the basis of soil types available in the Melbourne region, 23 sites were chosen for moisture monitoring down to a depth of 1500 mm. The field calibration method was used to develop correlations relating the volumetric moisture content and neutron counts. Observed results showed that the deepest ���wetting front��� during the wet season was limited to the top 800 to 1000 mm of soil whilst the top soil layer down to about 550mmresponded almost immediately to the rainfall events. At greater depths (550 to 800mmand below 800 mm), the moisture variations were relatively low and displayed predominantly periodic fluctuations. This periodic nature was captured with Fourier analysis to develop a cyclic moisture model on the basis of an analytical solution of a one-dimensional moisture flow equation for homogeneous soils. It is argued that the model developed can be used to predict the soil moisture variations as applicable to buried structures such as pipes.

An investigation into the production of chloromethly furfual from bagasse and bagasse pulp

There are many attractive alternatives to produce chemicals similar to those currently produced from fossil fuel resources. The most viable renewable resource of fixed carbon is biomass. This paper examines processing conditions for the production and recovery of furanics from bagasse as well as bagasse pulp. It is shown that bio-oil consisting mainly of furanics (~84% chloromethly furfural) may be obtained in yields of ~78% and ~87% by weight from bagasse and bagasse pulp respectively using a biphasic acid hydrolysis system. The biphasic system consists of an organic layer of dichloroethane and an aqueous phase of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Generally the lower the impurity content and the higher the cellulose content, the higher the furanics yield.

On-line scale monitoring device

Developments in evaporator cleaning have accelerated in the past 10 years as a result of an extended period of research into scale formation and scale composition. Chemical cleaning still provides the most cost effective method of cleaning the evaporators. The paper describes a system that was designed to obtain on-line samples of evaporator scale negating the need to open up hot evaporator vessels for scale collection. This system was successfully implemented in a number of evaporators at a sugar mill. This paper also describes a recent experience in a sugar factory in which the cleaning procedure was slightly modified resulting in effective removal of intractable scale.

A review on the production of levulinic acid and furanics from sugars

Sugarcane products represent an abundant and relatively low cost carbon resource that can be utilised to produce chemical intermediates such as levulinic acid and furanics. These chemicals can be easily upgraded to commodity and specialty chemicals and biofuels by high yielding and well established technologies. However, there are challenges and technical hurdles that need to be overcome before these chemical intermediates can be cost-effectively produced in commercial quantities. The paper reviews production of levulinic acid and furanics from sugars by homogeneous mineral acid catalysts, and reports on preliminary studies on the production of these compounds with environmentally friendly biodegradable sulfonic acids. The yields (>50% of theoretical) of levulinic acid, formic acid and furfural obtained with these organic acids are comparable to that of sulphuric acid currently used for their production.

Adolescent pedometer protocols : examining reactivity, tampering and participants' perceptions

The aim of this study was to investigate adolescents' potential reactivity and tampering while wearing pedometers by comparing different monitoring protocols to accelerometer output. The sample included adolescents (N=123, age range=14-15 years) from three secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia. Schools were randomised to one of the three pedometer monitoring protocols: (i) daily sealed (DS) pedometer group, (ii) unsealed (US) pedometer group or (iii) weekly sealed (WS) pedometer group. Participants wore pedometers (Yamax Digi-Walker CW700, Yamax Corporation, Kumamoto City, Japan) and accelerometers (Actigraph GT3X+, Pensacola, USA) simultaneously for seven days. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine potential reactivity. Bivariate correlations between step counts and accelerometer output were calculated to explore potential tampering. The correlation between accelerometer output and pedometer steps/day was strongest among participants in the WS group (r=0.82, P <= 0.001), compared to the US (r=0.63, P <= 0.001) and DS (r=0.16, P=0.324) groups. The DS (P <= 0.001) and US (P=0.003), but not the WS (P=0.891), groups showed evidence of reactivity. The results suggest that reactivity and tampering does occur in adolescents and contrary to existing research, pedometer monitoring protocols may influence participant behaviour.

Supernatants of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related Kaposi's sarcoma cells induce endothelial cell chemotaxis and invasiveness

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) in general, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related KS (AIDS-KS) in particular, is a highly invasive and intensely angiogenic neoplasm of unknown cellular origin. We have recently established AIDS-KS cells in long term culture and reported the development of KS-like lesions in nude mice inoculated with these cells. Here, we have examined the in vitro invasiveness of basement membrane by AIDS-KS cells, as well as the effect(s) of their supernatants on the migration and invasiveness of human vascular endothelial cells. AIDS-KS cells were highly invasive in the Boyden chamber invasion assay and formed invasive, branching colonies in a 3-dimensional gel (Matrigel). Normal endothelial cells form tube-like structures on Matrigel. AIDS-KS cell-conditioned media induced endothelial cells to form invasive clusters in addition to tubes. KS-cell-conditioned media, when placed in the lower compartment of the Boyden chamber, stimulated the migration of human and bovine vascular endothelial cells across filters coated with either small amounts of collagen IV (chemotaxis) or a Matrigel barrier (invasion). Basic fibroblast growth factor could also induce endothelial cell chemotaxis and invasion in these assays. However, when antibodies to basic fibroblast growth factor were used the invasive activity induced by the AIDS-KS-cell-conditioned media was only marginally inhibited, suggesting that the large quantities of basic fibroblast growth factor-like material released by the AIDS-KS cells are not the main mediators of this effect. Specific inhibitors of laminin and collagenase IV action, which represent critical determinants of basement membrane invasion, blocked the invasiveness of the AIDS-KS cell-activated endothelial cells in these assays. These data indicate that KS cells appear to be of smooth muscle origin but secrete a potent inducer of endothelial cell chemotaxis and invasiveness which could be responsible for angiogenesis and the resulting highly vascularized lesions. These assays appear to be a model to study the invasive spread and angiogenic capacity of human AIDS-related KS and should prove useful in the identification of molecular mediators and potential inhibitors of neoplastic neovascularization.

Sphingolipid distribution changes with age in the human lens

The formation of an internal barrier to the diffusion of small molecules in the lens during middle age is hypothesized to be a key event in the development of age-related nuclear (ARN) cataract. Changes in membrane lipids with age may be responsible. In this study, we investigated the effect of age on the distribution of sphingomyelins, the most abundant lens phospholipids. Human lens sections were initially analyzed by MALDI mass spectrometry imaging. A distinct annular distribution of the dihydrosphingomyelin, DHSM (d18:0/16:0), in the barrier region was observed in 64- and 70-year-old lenses but not in a 23-year-old lens. An increase in the dihydroceramide, DHCer (d18:0/16:0), in the lens nucleus was also observed in the older lenses. These findings were supported by ESI mass spectrometry analysis of lipid extracts from lenses dissected into outer, barrier, and nuclear regions. A subsequent analysis of 18 lenses ages 20-72 years revealed that sphingomyelin levels increased with age in the barrier region until reaching a plateau at approximately 40 years of age. Such changes in lipid composition will have a significant impact on the physical properties of the fiber cell membranes and may be associated with the formation of a barrier.-Deeley, J. M., J. A. Hankin, M. G. Friedrich, R. C. Murphy, R. J. W. Truscott, T. W. Mitchell, and S. J. Blanksby. Sphingolipid distribution changes with age in the human lens. J. Lipid Res. 2010. 51: 2753-2760.

Assessment of angiogenic potential--the use of AIDS-KS cell supernatants as an in vitro model

Metastasis, the passage of primary tumour cells throughout the body via the vascular system and their subsequent proliferation into secondary lesions in distant organs, represents a poor prognosis and therefore an understandably feared event for cancer patients. Despite considerable advances in cancer diagnosis and treatment, most deaths are the result of metastases resistant to conventional treatment [1]. Rather than being a random process, metastasis involves a series of organised steps leading to the growth of a secondary tumour. Malignant tumours stimulate the production of new vessels by the host, and this process is a prerequisite for the increase in size of a new tumour [2]. Angiogenesis, not only permits tumour expansion but also allows the entry of tumour cells into the circulation and is probably the most vital event for the metastatic process [3]. Metastasis and angiogenesis [4] have received much attention in recent years. A biological understanding of both phenomena seems to be an urgent priority towards the search for an effective prevention and treatment of tumour progression. Studies in vitro and in vivo have shown that one of the most important barriers to the passage of malignant cells is the basement membrane. The crossing of such barriers is a vital step in the formation of a metastasis [5].

Improving voltage profile of residential distribution systems using rooftop PVs and Battery Energy Storage systems

Large number of rooftop Photovoltaics (PVs) have turned traditional passive networks into active networks with intermittent and bidirectional power flow. A community based distribution network grid reinforcement process is proposed to address technical challenges associated with large integration of rooftop PVs. Probabilistic estimation of intermittent PV generation is considered. Depending on the network parameters such as the R/X ratio of distribution feeder, either reactive control from PVs or coordinated control of PVs and Battery Energy Storage (BES) has been proposed. Determination of BES capacity is one of the significant outcomes from the proposed method and several factors such as variation in PV installed capacity as well as participation from community members are analyzed. The proposed approach is convenient for the community members providing them flexibility of managing their integrated PV and BES systems

Design, manufacturing and maintenance of sugar milling equipment : observations from the 2008 ISSCT Engineering Workshop

An International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists (ISSCT) Engineering Workshop was held in Piracicaba, Brazil from 30 June to 4 July 2008. The theme of the workshop was Design, manufacturing and maintenance of sugar mill equipment. The workshop consisted of a series of technical sessions and site visits. The Brazilian sugar industry is growing rapidly. The growth has occurred as the result of the sugar industry���s position as a key provider of renewable energy in the form of ethanol and, more recently, electricity. The increased focus on electricity is seeing investment in high pressure (100 bar) boilers, cane cleaning plants that allow an increased biomass supply from trash and digesters that produce biogas from dunder. It is clear that the Brazilian sugar industry has a well defined place in the country���s future. The ISSCT workshop provided a good opportunity to gain information from equipment suppliers and discuss new technology that may have application in Australia. The new technologies of interest included IMCO sintered carbide shredder hammer tips, Fives Cail MillMax mills, planetary mill gearboxes, Bosch Projects chainless diffusers, Fives Cail Zuka centrifugals and Vaperma Siftek membrane systems.

Process of conducting qualitative research

In 2007 some of us were fortunate enough to be in Dundee for the Royal College of Nursing���s Annual International Nursing Research Conference. A highlight of that conference was an enactment of the process and context debate. The chair asked for volunteers and various members of the audience came forward giving the impression that they were nurses and that it was a chance selection. The audience accepted these individuals as their representatives and once they had gathered on stage we all expected the debate to begin. But the large number of researchers in the audience gave little thought to the selection and recruitment process they had just witnessed. Then the selected representatives stood up and sang A cappella. Suddenly the context was different and we questioned the process. The point was made: process or context, or both?

Human vs. machine : identification of bat species from their echolocation calls by humans and by artificial neural networks

Automated remote ultrasound detectors allow large amounts of data on bat presence and activity to be collected. Processing of such data involves identifying bat species from their echolocation calls. Automated species identification has the potential to provide more consistent, predictable, and potentially higher levels of accuracy than identification by humans. In contrast, identification by humans permits flexibility and intelligence in identification, as well as the incorporation of features and patterns that may be difficult to quantify. We compared humans with artificial neural networks (ANNs) in their ability to classify short recordings of bat echolocation calls of variable signal to noise ratios; these sequences are typical of those obtained from remote automated recording systems that are often used in large-scale ecological studies. We presented 45 recordings (1���4 calls) produced by known species of bats to ANNs and to 26 human participants with 1 month to 23 years of experience in acoustic identification of bats. Humans correctly classified 86% of recordings to genus and 56% to species; ANNs correctly identified 92% and 62%, respectively. There was no significant difference between the performance of ANNs and that of humans, but ANNs performed better than about 75% of humans. There was little relationship between the experience of the human participants and their classification rate. However, humans with <1 year of experience performed worse than others. Currently, identification of bat echolocation calls by humans is suitable for ecological research, after careful consideration of biases. However, improvements to ANNs and the data that they are trained on may in future increase their performance to beyond those demonstrated by humans.

Phylogenetics of small horseshoe bats from east Asia based on mitochondrial DNA sequence variation

We undertook analyses of mitochondrial DNA gene sequences and echolocation calls to resolve phylogenetic relationships among the related bat taxa Rhinolophus pusillus (sampled across China), R. monoceros (Taiwan), R. cornutus (main islands of Japan), and R. c. pumilus (Okinawa, Japan), Phylogenetic trees and genetic divergence analyses were constructed by combining new complete mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene sequences and partial mitochondrial control region sequences with published sequences. Our work showed that these 4 taxa formed monophyletic groups in the phylogenetic tree. However, low levels of sequence divergence among the taxa, together with similarities in body size and overlapping echolocation call frequencies, point to a lack of taxonomic distinctiveness. We therefore suggest that these taxa are better considered as geographical subspecies rather than distinct species, although this should not diminish the conservation importance of these island populations, which are important evolutionarily significant units. Based on our findings, we suggest that the similarities in body size and echolocation call frequency in these rhinolophids result from their recent common ancestry, whereas similarities in body size and call frequency with R. hipposideros of Europe are the result of convergent evolution.

Some of the design considerations in power generation from offshore wind farms

The global efforts to reduce carbon emissions from power generation have favoured renewable energy resources such as wind and solar in recent years. The generation of power from the renewable energy resources has become attractive because of various incentives provided by government policies supporting green power. Among the various available renewable energy resources, the power generation from wind has seen tremendous growth in the last decade. This article discusses various advantages of the upcoming offshore wind technology and associated considerations related to their construction. The conventional configuration of the offshore wind farm is based on the alternative current internal links. With the recent advances of improved commercialised converters, voltage source converters based high voltage direct current link for offshore wind farms is gaining popularity. The planning and construction phases of offshore wind farms, including related environmental issues, are discussed here.