An optimal under-frequency load shedding strategy considering distributed generators and load static characteristics

The well-established under-frequency load shedding (UFLS) is deemed to be the last of effective remedial measures against a severe frequency decline of a power system. With the ever-increasing size of power systems and the extensive penetration of distributed generators (DGs) in power systems, the problem of developing an optimal UFLS strategy is facing some new challenges. Given this background, an optimal UFLS strategy for a distribution system with DGs and load static characteristics taken into consideration is developed. Based on the frequency and the rate of change of frequency, the presented strategy consists of several basic rounds and a special round. In the basic round, the frequency emergency can be alleviated by quickly shedding some loads. In the special round, the frequency security can be maintained, and the operating parameters of the distribution system can be optimized by adjusting the output powers of DGs and some loads. The modified IEEE 37-node test feeder is employed to demonstrate the essential features of the developed optimal UFLS strategy in the MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.

Static analysis of executables for collaborative malware detection on Android

Smartphones are getting increasingly popular and several malwares appeared targeting these devices. General countermeasures to smartphone malwares are currently limited to signature-based antivirus scanners which efficiently detect known malwares, but they have serious shortcomings with new and unknown malwares creating a window of opportunity for attackers. As smartphones become host for sensitive data and applications, extended malware detection mechanisms are necessary complying with the corresponding resource constraints. The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, we perform static analysis on the executables to extract their function calls in Android environment using the command readelf. Function call lists are compared with malware executables for classifying them with PART, Prism and Nearest Neighbor Algorithms. Second, we present a collaborative malware detection approach to extend these results. Corresponding simulation results are presented.

Detecting Symbian OS malware through static function call analysis

Smartphones become very critical part of our lives as they offer advanced capabilities with PC-like functionalities. They are getting widely deployed while not only being used for classical voice-centric communication. New smartphone malwares keep emerging where most of them still target Symbian OS. In the case of Symbian OS, application signing seemed to be an appropriate measure for slowing down malware appearance. Unfortunately, latest examples showed that signing can be bypassed resulting in new malware outbreak. In this paper, we present a novel approach to static malware detection in resource-limited mobile environments. This approach can be used to extend currently used third-party application signing mechanisms for increasing malware detection capabilities. In our work, we extract function calls from binaries in order to apply our clustering mechanism, called centroid. This method is capable of detecting unknown malwares. Our results are promising where the employed mechanism might find application at distribution channels, like online application stores. Additionally, it seems suitable for directly being used on smartphones for (pre-)checking installed applications.

Championing behaviour of a project manager : determinants and outcomes

The role of individuals in the innovation process is highlighted as system integrator and/or champion in literature, however, little is known about championing role of a project manager. Our contention is that the role of the project manager (PM) is essentially of a champion to enable innovation and achieve desired project performance in construction project environment. Hypothesizing that championing behaviour is determined by a number of individual and situational factors, which in turn effects on level of innovation and project performance, we used correlation and regression analysis to test the hypotheses. A survey was carried out with project managers and project team members in 32 building and civil engineering projects in Singapore to test the hypothesized relationships. The results corroborate the importance of championing behaviour to fostering innovation and achieve better project performance.

Using static analysis for automatic assessment and mitigation of unwanted and malicious activities within Android applications

In the last decade, smartphones have gained widespread usage. Since the advent of online application stores, hundreds of thousands of applications have become instantly available to millions of smart-phone users. Within the Android ecosystem, application security is governed by digital signatures and a list of coarse-grained permissions. However, this mechanism is not fine-grained enough to provide the user with a sufficient means of control of the applications' activities. Abuse of highly sensible private information such as phone numbers without users' notice is the result. We show that there is a high frequency of privacy leaks even among widely popular applications. Together with the fact that the majority of the users are not proficient in computer security, this presents a challenge to the engineers developing security solutions for the platform. Our contribution is twofold: first, we propose a service which is able to assess Android Market applications via static analysis and provide detailed, but readable reports to the user. Second, we describe a means to mitigate security and privacy threats by automated reverse-engineering and refactoring binary application packages according to the users' security preferences.

Performance characterization of VGCF/epoxy nanocomposite sensors under static load cycles and in static structural health monitoring

Compared to conventional metal-foil strain gauges, nanocomposite piezoresistive strain sensors have demonstrated high strain sensitivity and have been attracting increasing attention in recent years. To fulfil their ultimate success, the performance of vapor growth carbon fiber (VGCF)/epoxy nanocomposite strain sensors subjected to static cyclic loads was evaluated in this work. A strain-equivalent quantity (resistance change ratio) in cantilever beams with intentionally induced notches in bending was evaluated using the conventional metal-foil strain gauges and the VGCF/epoxy nanocomposite sensors. Compared to the metal-foil strain gauges, the nanocomposite sensors are much more sensitive to even slight structural damage. Therefore, it was confirmed that the signal stability, reproducibility, and durability of these nanocomposite sensors are very promising, leading to the present endeavor to apply them for static structural health monitoring.

Deformation behaviour of nanocrystalline Mg-AI alloys during nanoindentation

The deformation behaviour of Mg-5%AI alloys and its dependence with gain size and strain rate were investigated using nanoindentation. The grain sizes were successfully reduced below 100 nm via mechanical alloying method. It was found that the strain rate sensitivity increased with decreasing grain size. The smaller activation volumes and the plastic deformation mechanisms involving grain boundary activities are considered to contribute to the increase of strain rate sensitivity in the nanocrystalline alloys.

Static smartphone malware detection

Static anaylsis represents an approach of checking source code or compiled code of applications before it gets executed. Chess and McGraw state that static anaylsis promises to identify common coding problems automatically. While manual code checking is also a form of static analysis, software tools are used in most cases in order to perform the checks. Chess and McGraw additionaly claim that good static checkers can help to spot and eradicate common security bugs.

Numerical Modelling of Mechanical Behaviour of Graphene

Graphene, one of the allotropes (diamond, carbon nanotube, and fullerene) of element carbon, is a monolayer of honeycomb lattice of carbon atoms, which was discovered in 2004. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for their ground breaking work on the two-dimensional (2D) graphene [1]. Since its discovery, the research communities have shown a lot of interest in this novel material owing to its intriguing electrical, mechanical and thermal properties. It has been confirmed that grapheme possesses very peculiar electrical properties such as anomalous quantum hall effect, and high electron mobility at room temperature (250000 cm2/Vs). Graphene also has exceptional mechanical properties. It is one of the stiffest (modulus ~1 TPa) and strongest (strength ~100 GPa) materials. In addition, it has exceptional thermal conductivity (5000 Wm-1K-1). Due to these exceptional properties, graphene has demonstrated its potential for broad applications in micro and nano devices, various sensors, electrodes, solar cells and energy storage devices and nanocomposites. In particular, the excellent mechanical properties of graphene make it more attractive for development next generation nanocomposites and hybrid materials...

ActiGraph GT3X determined variations in “free-living” standing, lying, and sitting duration among sedentary adults

Background Overweight and obesity has become a serious public health problem in many parts of the world. Studies suggest that making small changes in daily activity levels such as “breaking-up” sedentary time (i.e., standing) may help mitigate the health risks of sedentary behavior. The aim of the present study was to examine time spent in standing (determined by count threshold), lying, and sitting postures (determined by inclinometer function) via the ActiGraph GT3X among sedentary adults with differing weight status based on body mass index (BMI) categories. Methods Participants included 22 sedentary adults (14 men, 8 women; mean age 26.5 ± 4.1 years). All subjects completed the self-report International Physical Activity Questionnaire to determine time spent sitting over the previous 7 days. Participants were included if they spent seven or more hours sitting per day. Postures were determined with the ActiGraph GT3X inclinometer function. Participants were instructed to wear the accelerometer for 7 consecutive days (24 h a day). BMI was categorized as: 18.5 to <25 kg/m2 as normal, 25 to <30 kg/m2 as overweight, and ≥30 kg/m2 as obese. Results Participants in the normal weight (n = 10) and overweight (n = 6) groups spent significantly more time standing (after adjustment for moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity and wear-time) (6.7 h and 7.3 h respectively) and less time sitting (7.1 h and 6.9 h respectively) than those in obese (n = 6) categories (5.5 h and 8.0 h respectively) after adjustment for wear-time (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences in standing and sitting time between normal weight and overweight groups (p = 0.051 and p = 0.670 respectively). Differences were not significant among groups for lying time (p = 0.55). Conclusion This study described postural allocations standing, lying, and sitting among normal weight, overweight, and obese sedentary adults. The results provide additional evidence for the use of increasing standing time in obesity prevention strategies.

Identifying an appropriate driving behaviour scale for the occupational driving context : the DBQ vs. the ODBQ

Self reported driving behaviour in the occupational driving context has typically been measured through scales adapted from the general driving population (i.e. the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)). However, research suggests that occupational driving is influenced by unique factors operating within the workplace environment, and thus, a behavioural scale should reflect those behaviours prevalent and unique within the driving context. To overcome this limitation, developed the Occupational Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (ODBQ) which utilises a relevant theoretical model to assess the impact of the broader workplace context on driving behaviour. Although the theoretical argument has been established, research is yet to examine whether the ODBQ or the DBQ is a more sensitive measure of the workplace context. As such, this paper identifies selected organisational factors (i.e. safety climate and role overload) as predictors of the DBQ and the ODBQ and compares the relative predictive value in both models. In undertaking this task, 248 occupational drivers were recruited from a community-oriented nursing population. As predicted, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the organisational factors accounted for a significantly greater proportion of variance in the ODBQ than the DBQ. These findings offer a number of practical and theoretical applications for occupational driving practice and future research.

A comprehensive investigation of the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers

Young novice drivers - that is, drivers aged 16-25 years who are relatively inexperienced in driving on the road and have a novice (Learner, Provisional) driver's licence - have been overrepresented in car crash, injury and fatality statistics around the world for decades. There are numerous persistent characteristics evident in young novice driver crashes, fatalities and offences, including variables relating to the young driver themselves, broader social influences which include their passengers, the car they drive, and when and how they drive, and their risky driving behaviour in particular. Moreover, there are a range of psychosocial factors influencing the behaviour of young novice drivers, including the social influences of parents and peers, and person-related factors such as age-related factors, attitudes, and sensation seeking. Historically, a range of approaches have been developed to manage the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers. Traditional measures predominantly relying upon education have had limited success in regulating the risky driving behaviour of the young novice driver. In contrast, interventions such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) which acknowledges young novice drivers' limitations - principally pertaining to their chronological and developmental age, and their driving inexperience - have shown to be effective in ameliorating this pervasive public health problem. In practice, GDL is a risk management tool that is designed to reduce driving at risky times (e.g., at night) or in risky driving conditions (e.g., with passengers), while still enabling novice drivers to obtain experience. In this regard, the GDL program in Queensland, Australia, was considerably enhanced in July 2007, and major additions to the program include mandated Learner practice of 100 hours recorded in a logbook, and passenger limits during night driving in the Provisional phase. Road safety researchers have also continued to consider the influential role played by the young driver's psychosocial characteristics, including psychological traits and states. In addition, whilst the majority of road safety user research is epidemiological in nature, contemporary road safety research is increasingly applying psychological and criminological theories. Importantly, such theories not only can guide young novice driver research, they can also inform the development and evaluation of countermeasures targeting their risky driving behaviour. The research is thus designed to explore the self-reported behaviours - and the personal, psychosocial, and structural influences upon the behaviours - of young novice drivers This thesis incorporates three stages of predominantly quantitative research to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Risky driving behaviour increases the likelihood of the young novice driver being involved in a crash which may harm themselves or other road users, and deliberate risky driving such as driving in excess of the posted speed limits is the focus of the program of research. The extant literature examining the nature of the risky behaviour of the young novice driver - and the contributing factors for this behaviour - while comprehensive, has not led to the development of a reliable instrument designed specifically to measure the risky behaviour of the young novice driver. Therefore the development and application of such a tool (the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, or BYNDS) was foremost in the program of research. In addition to describing the driving behaviours of the young novice, a central theme of this program of research was identifying, describing, and quantifying personal, behavioural, and environmental influences upon young novice driver risky behaviour. Accordingly the 11 papers developed from the three stages of research which comprise this thesis are framed within Bandura's reciprocal determinism model which explicitly considers the reciprocal relationship between the environment, the person, and their behaviour. Stage One comprised the foundation research and operationalised quantitative and qualitative methodologies to finalise the instrument used in Stages Two and Three. The first part of Stage One involved an online survey which was completed by 761 young novice drivers who attended tertiary education institutions across Queensland. A reliable instrument for measuring the risky driving behaviour of young novices was developed (the BYNDS) and is currently being operationalised in young novice driver research in progress at the Centre for Injury Research and Prevention in Philadelphia, USA. In addition, regression analyses revealed that psychological distress influenced risky driving behaviour, and the differential influence of depression, anxiety, sensitivity to punishments and rewards, and sensation seeking propensity were explored. Path model analyses revealed that punishment sensitivity was mediated by anxiety and depression; and the influence of depression, anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity were moderated by the gender of the driver. Specifically, for males, sensation seeking propensity, depression, and reward sensitivity were predictive of self-reported risky driving, whilst for females anxiety was also influential. In the second part of Stage One, 21 young novice drivers participated in individual and small group interviews. The normative influences of parents, peers, and the Police were explicated. Content analysis supported four themes of influence through punishments, rewards, and the behaviours and attitudes of parents and friends. The Police were also influential upon the risky driving behaviour of young novices. The findings of both parts of Stage One informed the research of Stage Two. Stage Two was a comprehensive investigation of the pre-Licence and Learner experiences, attitudes, and behaviours, of young novice drivers. In this stage, 1170 young novice drivers from across Queensland completed an online or paper survey exploring their experiences, behaviours and attitudes as a pre- and Learner driver. The majority of novices did not drive before they were licensed (pre-Licence driving) or as an unsupervised Learner, submitted accurate logbooks, intended to follow the road rules as a Provisional driver, and reported practicing predominantly at the end of the Learner period. The experience of Learners in the enhanced-GDL program were also examined and compared to those of Learner drivers who progressed through the former-GDL program (data collected previously by Bates, Watson, & King, 2009a). Importantly, current-GDL Learners reported significantly more driving practice and a longer Learner period, less difficulty obtaining practice, and less offence detection and crash involvement than Learners in the former-GDL program. The findings of Stage Two informed the research of Stage Three. Stage Three was a comprehensive exploration of the driving experiences, attitudes and behaviours of young novice drivers during their first six months of Provisional 1 licensure. In this stage, 390 of the 1170 young novice drivers from Stage Two completed another survey, and data collected during Stages Two and Three allowed a longitudinal investigation of self-reported risky driving behaviours, such as GDL-specific and general road rule compliance; risky behaviour such as pre-Licence driving, crash involvement and offence detection; and vehicle ownership, paying attention to Police presence, and punishment avoidance. Whilst the majority of Learner and Provisional drivers reported compliance with GDL-specific and general road rules, 33% of Learners and 50% of Provisional drivers reported speeding by 10-20 km/hr at least occasionally. Twelve percent of Learner drivers reported pre-Licence driving, and these drivers were significantly more risky as Learner and Provisional drivers. Ten percent of males and females reported being involved in a crash, and 10% of females and 18% of males had been detected for an offence, within the first six months of independent driving. Additionally, 75% of young novice drivers reported owning their own car within six months of gaining their Provisional driver's licence. Vehicle owners reported significantly shorter Learner periods and more risky driving exposure as a Provisional driver. Paying attention to Police presence on the roads appeared normative for young novice drivers: 91% of Learners and 72% of Provisional drivers reported paying attention. Provisional drivers also reported they actively avoided the Police: 25% of males and 13% of females; 23% of rural drivers and 15% of urban drivers. Stage Three also allowed the refinement of the risky behaviour measurement tool (BYNDS) created in Stage One; the original reliable 44-item instrument was refined to a similarly reliable 36-item instrument. A longitudinal exploration of the influence of anxiety, depression, sensation seeking propensity and reward sensitivity upon the risky behaviour of the Provisional driver was also undertaken using data collected in Stages Two and Three. Consistent with the research of Stage One, structural equation modeling revealed anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity predicted self-reported risky driving behaviour. Again, gender was a moderator, with only reward sensitivity predicting risky driving for males. A measurement model of Akers' social learning theory (SLT) was developed containing six subscales operationalising the four constructs of differential association, imitation, personal attitudes, and differential reinforcement, and the influence of parents and peers was captured within the items in a number of these constructs. Analyses exploring the nature and extent of the psychosocial influences of personal characteristics (step 1), Akers' SLT (step 2), and elements of the prototype/willingness model (PWM) (step 3) upon self-reported speeding by the Provisional driver in a hierarchical multiple regression model found the following significant predictors: gender (male), car ownership (own car), reward sensitivity (greater sensitivity), depression (greater depression), personal attitudes (more risky attitudes), and speeding (more speeding) as a Learner. The research findings have considerable implications for road safety researchers, policy-makers, mental health professionals and medical practitioners alike. A broad range of issues need to be considered when developing, implementing and evaluating interventions for both the intentional and unintentional risky driving behaviours of interest. While a variety of interventions have been historically utilised, including education, enforcement, rehabilitation and incentives, caution is warranted. A multi-faceted approach to improving novice road safety is more likely to be effective, and new and existing countermeasures should capitalise on the potential of parents, peers and Police to be a positive influence upon the risky behaviour of young novice drivers. However, the efficacy of some interventions remains undetermined at this time. Notwithstanding this caveat, countermeasures such as augmenting and strengthening Queensland's GDL program and targeting parents and adolescents particularly warrant further attention. The findings of the research program suggest that Queensland's current-GDL can be strengthened by increasing compliance of young novice drivers with existing conditions and restrictions. The rates of speeding reported by the young Learner driver are particularly alarming for a number of reasons. The Learner is inexperienced in driving, and travelling in excess of speed limits places them at greater risk as they are also inexperienced in detecting and responding appropriately to driving hazards. In addition, the Learner period should provide the foundation for a safe lifetime driving career, enabling the development and reinforcement of non-risky driving habits. Learners who sped reported speeding by greater margins, and at greater frequencies, when they were able to drive independently. Other strategies could also be considered to enhance Queensland's GDL program, addressing both the pre-Licence adolescent and their parents. Options that warrant further investigation to determine their likely effectiveness include screening and treatment of novice drivers by mental health professionals and/or medical practitioners; and general social skills training. Considering the self-reported pre-licence driving of the young novice driver, targeted education of parents may need to occur before their child obtains a Learner licence. It is noteworthy that those participants who reported risky driving during the Learner phase also were more likely to report risky driving behaviour during the Provisional phase; therefore it appears vital that the development of safe driving habits is encouraged from the beginning of the novice period. General education of parents and young novice drivers should inform them of the considerably-increased likelihood of risky driving behaviour, crashes and offences associated with having unlimited access to a vehicle in the early stages of intermediate licensure. Importantly, parents frequently purchase the car that is used by the Provisional driver, who typically lives at home with their parents, and therefore parents are ideally positioned to monitor the journeys of their young novice driver during this early stage of independent driving. Parents are pivotal in the development of their driving child: they are models who are imitated and are sources of attitudes, expectancies, rewards and punishments; and they provide the most driving instruction for the Learner. High rates of self-reported speeding by Learners suggests that GDL programs specifically consider the nature of supervision during the Learner period, encouraging supervisors to be vigilant to compliance with general and GDL-specific road rules, and especially driving in excess of speed limit. Attitudes towards driving are formed before the adolescent reaches the age when they can be legally licensed. Young novice drivers with risky personal attitudes towards driving reported more risky driving behaviour, suggesting that countermeasures should target such attitudes and that such interventions might be implemented before the adolescent is licensed. The risky behaviours and attitudes of friends were also found to be influential, and given that young novice drivers tend to carry their friends as their passengers, a group intervention such as provided in a school class context may prove more effective. Social skills interventions that encourage the novice to resist the negative influences of their friends and their peer passengers, and to not imitate the risky driving behaviour of their friends, may also be effective. The punishments and rewards anticipated from and administered by friends were also found to influence the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice driver; therefore young persons could be encouraged to sanction the risky, and to reward the non-risky, driving of their novice friends. Adolescent health programs and related initiatives need to more specifically consider the risks associated with driving. Young novice drivers are also adolescents, a developmental period associated with depression and anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and sensation seeking propensity were found to be predictive of risky driving; therefore interventions targeting psychological distress, whilst discouraging the expression of sensation seeking propensity whilst driving, warrant development and trialing. In addition, given that reward sensitivity was also predictive, a scheme which rewards novice drivers for safe driving behaviour - rather than rewarding the novice through emotional and instrumental rewards for risky driving behaviour - requires further investigation. The Police were also influential in the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Young novice drivers who had been detected for an offence, and then avoided punishment, reacted differentially, with some drivers appearing to become less risky after the encounter, whilst for others their risky behaviour appeared to be reinforced and therefore was more likely to be performed again. Such drivers saw t

Statutory-backed continuous disclosure regime and corporate disclosure behaviour : does corporate governance matter?

Since 1 December 2002, the New Zealand Exchange’s (NZX) continuous disclosure listing rules have operated with statutory backing. To test the effectiveness of the new corporate disclosure regime, we compare the change in quantity of market announcements (overall, non-routine, non-procedural and external) released to the NZX before and after the introduction of statutory backing. We also extend our study in investigating whether the effectiveness of the new corporate disclosure regime is diminished or augmented by corporate governance mechanisms including board size, providing separate roles for CEO and Chairman, board independence, board gender diversity and audit committee independence. Our findings provide a qualified support for the effectiveness of the new corporate disclosure regime regarding the quantity of market disclosures. There is strong evidence that the effectiveness of the new corporate disclosure regime was augmented by providing separate roles for CEO and Chairman, board gender diversity and audit committee independence, and diminished by board size. In addition, there is significant evidence that share price queries do impact corporate disclosure behaviour and this impact is significantly influenced by corporate governance mechanisms. Our findings provide important implications for corporate regulators in their quest for...

Book Review : "The Psychology of Eating : From Healthy to Disordered Behaviour"

WHEN JANE Ogden embarked on writing a book about the psychology of eating I wonder whether she realized the enormity of the task given the breadth of research literature in this field. Through a series of 12 closely related chapters on eating, health, food choice, dieting, obesity, body image, eating disorders and others, an extensive range of areas of the psychology of eating is covered. As well as these areas, included within each chapter is a discussion of the significance of historical, cultural, social and familial factors, theoretical approaches and empirical data in the understanding of the multifaceted problems related to eating. At the end of each chapter there is a box entitled ‘Towards an integrated model of diet’ that links the content with that of the following chapters...

Static and dynamic performance of lightweight hybrid composite floor plate system

In the modern built environment, building construction and demolition consume a large amount of energy and emits greenhouse gasses due to widely used conventional construction materials such as reinforced and composite concrete. These materials consume high amount of natural resources and possess high embodied energy. More energy is required to recycle or reuse such materials at the cessation of use. Therefore, it is very important to use recyclable or reusable new materials in building construction in order to conserve natural resources and reduce the energy and emissions associated with conventional materials. Advancements in materials technology have resulted in the introduction of new composite and hybrid materials in infrastructure construction as alternatives to the conventional materials. This research project has developed a lightweight and prefabricatable Hybrid Composite Floor Plate System (HCFPS) as an alternative to conventional floor system, with desirable properties, easy to construct, economical, demountable, recyclable and reusable. Component materials of HCFPS include a central Polyurethane (PU) core, outer layers of Glass-fiber Reinforced Cement (GRC) and steel laminates at tensile regions. This research work explored the structural adequacy and performance characteristics of hybridised GRC, PU and steel laminate for the development of HCFPS. Performance characteristics of HCFPS were investigated using Finite Element (FE) method simulations supported by experimental testing. Parametric studies were conducted to develop the HCFPS to satisfy static performance using sectional configurations, spans, loading and material properties as the parameters. Dynamic response of HCFPS floors was investigated by conducting parametric studies using material properties, walking frequency and damping as the parameters. Research findings show that HCFPS can be used in office and residential buildings to provide acceptable static and dynamic performance. Design guidelines were developed for this new floor system. HCFPS is easy to construct and economical compared to conventional floor systems as it is lightweight and prefabricatable floor system. This floor system can also be demounted and reused or recycled at the cessation of use due to its component materials.