Effects of inhibitors of plasminogen activator, serine proteinases, and collagenase IV on the invasion of basement membranes by metastatic cells

Using both human and murine cell lines, we show that malignant cells are able to invade through basement membrane and also secrete elevated amounts of collagenase IV, an enzyme implicated in the degradation of basement membranes. Using serine proteinase inhibitors and antibodies to plasminogen activators as well as a newly described collagenase inhibitor we demonstrate that a protease cascade leads to the activation of an enzyme(s) that cleaves collagen IV. Inhibition at each step reduces the invasion of the tumor cells through reconstituted basement membrane in vitro. Treatment with a collagenase inhibitor reduced the incidence of lung lesions in mice given i.v. injections of malignant melanoma cells.

Scleral matrix metalloproteinases, serine proteinase activity and hydrational capacity are increased in myopia induced by retinal image degradation

In the avian model of myopia, retinal image degradation quickly leads to ocular enlargement. We now give evidence that regionally specific changes in ocular size are correlated with both biomechanical indices of scleral remodeling, e.g. hydration capacity and with biochemical changes in proteinase activities. The latter include a 72 kDa matrix metalloproteinase (putatively MMP-2), other gelatin-binding MMPs, an acid pH MMP and a serine protease. Specifically, we have found that increases in scleral hydrational capacity parallel increases in collagen degrading activities. Gelatin zymography reveals that eyes with 7 days of retinal image degradation have elevated levels (1.4-fold) of gelatinolytic activities at 72 and 67 kDa M(r) in equatorial and posterior pole regions of the sclera while, after 14 days of treatment, increases are no longer apparent. Lower M(r) zymographic activities at 50, 46 and 37 kDa M(r) are collectively increased in eyes treated for both 7 and 14 days (1.4- and 2.4-fold respectively) in the equator and posterior pole areas of enlarging eyes. Western blot analyses of scleral extracts with an antibody to human MMP-2 reveals immunoreactive bands at 65, 30 and 25 kDa. Zymograms incubated under slightly acidic conditions reveal that, in enlarging eyes, MMP activities at 25 and 28 kDa M(r) are increased in scleral equator and posterior pole (1.6- and 4.5-fold respectively). A TIMP-like protein is also identified in sclera and cornea by Western blot analysis. Finally, retinal-image degradation also increases (~2.6-fold) the activity of a 23.5 kDa serine proteinase in limbus, equator and posterior pole sclera that is inhibited by aprotinin and soybean trypsin inhibitor. Taken together, these results indicate that eye growth induced by retinal-image degradation involves increases in the activities of multiple scleral proteinases that could modify the biomechanical properties of scleral structural components and contribute to tissue remodeling and growth.

The crude skin secretion of the pepper frog leptodactylus labyrinthicus is rich in metallo and serine peptidases

Peptidases are ubiquitous enzymes involved in diverse biological processes. Fragments from bioactive peptides have been found in skin secretions from frogs, and their presence suggests processing by peptidases. Thus, the aim of this work was to characterize the peptidase activity present in the skin secretion of Leptodactylus labyrinthicus. Zymography revealed the presence of three bands of gelatinase activity of approximately 60 kDa, 66 kDa, and 80 kDa, which the first two were calcium-dependent. These three bands were inhibited either by ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and phenathroline; thus, they were characterized as metallopeptidases. Furthermore, the proteolytic enzymes identified were active only at pH 6.0–10.0, and their activity increased in the presence of CHAPS or NaCl. Experiments with fluorogenic substrates incubated with skin secretions identified aminopeptidase activity, with cleavage after leucine, proline, and alanine residues. This activity was directly proportional to the protein concentration, and it was inhibited in the presence of metallo and serine peptidase inhibitors. Besides, the optimal pH for substrate cleavage was determined to be 7.0–8.0. The results of the in gel activity assay showed that all substrates were hydrolyzed by a 45 kDa peptidase. Gly-Pro-AMC was also cleaved by a peptidase greater than 97 kDa. The data suggest the presence of dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs) and metallopeptidases; however, further research is necessary. In conclusion, our work will help to elucidate the implication of these enzymatic activities in the processing of the bioactive peptides present in frog venom, expanding the knowledge of amphibian biology.

UafB is a serine-rich repeat adhesin of Staphylococcus saprophyticus that mediates binding to fibronectin, fibrinogen and human uroepithelial cells

Staphylococcus saprophyticus is an important cause of urinary tract infection (UTI), particularly among young women, and is second only to uropathogenic Escherichia coli as the most frequent cause of UTI. The molecular mechanisms of urinary tract colonization by S. saprophyticus remain poorly understood. We have identified a novel 6.84 kb plasmid-located adhesin-encoding gene in S. saprophyticus strain MS1146 which we have termed uro-adherence factor B (uafB). UafB is a glycosylated serine-rich repeat protein that is expressed on the surface of S. saprophyticus MS1146. UafB also functions as a major cell surface hydrophobicity factor. To characterize the role of UafB we generated an isogenic uafB mutant in S. saprophyticus MS1146 by interruption with a group II intron. The uafB mutant had a significantly reduced ability to bind to fibronectin and fibrinogen. Furthermore, we show that a recombinant protein containing the putative binding domain of UafB binds specifically to fibronectin and fibrinogen. UafB was not involved in adhesion in a mouse model of UTI; however, we observed a striking UafB-mediated adhesion phenotype to human uroepithelial cells. We have also identified genes homologous to uafB in other staphylococci which, like uafB, appear to be located on transposable elements. Thus, our data indicate that UafB is a novel adhesin of S. saprophyticus that contributes to cell surface hydrophobicity, mediates adhesion to fibronectin and fibrinogen, and exhibits tropism for human uroepithelial cells.

Identification and characterization of novel proteolytic interactions of prostate cancer-expressed kallikrein-related peptidases, type II transmembrane serine proteases and matrix metalloproteinases

This study investigated interactions of protein-cleaving enzymes (or proteases) that promote prostate cancer progression. It provides the first evidence of a novel regulatory network of protease activity at the surface of cells. The proteases kallikrein-related peptidases 4 and 14, and matrix metalloproteinases 3 and 9 are cleaved at the cell surface by the cell surface proteases hepsin and TMPRSS2. These cleavage events potentially regulate activation of downstream targets of kallikrein 4 and 14 such as cell surface signalling via the protease-activated receptors (PARs) and cell growth-promoting factors such as hepatocyte-growth factor.

Murine, but not human, ephrin-B2 can be efficiently cleaved by the serine protease kallikrein-4: Implications for xenograft models of human prostate cancer

Background Ephrin-B2 is the sole physiologically-relevant ligand of the receptor tyrosine kinase EphB4, which is over-expressed in many epithelial cancers, including 66% of prostate cancers, and contributes to cancer cell survival, invasion and migration. Crucially, however, the cancer-promoting EphB4 signalling pathways are independent of interaction with its ligand ephrin-B2, as activation of ligand-dependent signalling causes tumour suppression. Ephrin-B2, however, is often found on the surface of endothelial cells of the tumour vasculature, where it can regulate angiogenesis to support tumour growth. Proteolytic cleavage of endothelial cell ephrin-B2 has previously been suggested as one mechanism whereby the interaction between tumour cell-expressed EphB4 and endothelial cell ephrin-B2 is regulated to support both cancer promotion and angiogenesis. Methods An in silico approach was used to search accessible surfaces of 3D protein models for cleavage sites for the key prostate cancer serine protease, KLK4, and this identified murine ephrin-B2 as a potential KLK4 substrate. Mouse ephrin-B2 was then confirmed as a KLK4 substrate by in vitro incubation of recombinant mouse ephrin-B2 with active recombinant human KLK4. Cleavage products were visualised by SDS-PAGE, silver staining and Western blot and confirmed by N-terminal sequencing. Results At low molar ratios, KLK4 cleaved murine ephrin-B2 but other prostate-specific KLK family members (KLK2 and KLK3/PSA) were less efficient, suggesting cleavage was KLK4-selective. The primary KLK4 cleavage site in murine ephrin-B2 was verified and shown to correspond to one of the in silico predicted sites between extracellular domain residues arginine 178 and asparagine 179. Surprisingly, the highly homologous human ephrin-B2 was poorly cleaved by KLK4 at these low molar ratios, likely due to the 3 amino acid differences at this primary cleavage site. Conclusion These data suggest that in in vivo mouse xenograft models, endogenous mouse ephrin-B2, but not human tumour ephrin-B2, may be a downstream target of cancer cell secreted human KLK4. This is a critical consideration when interpreting data from murine explants of human EphB4+/KLK4+ cancer cells, such as prostate cancer cells, where differential effects may be seen in mouse models as opposed to human clinical situations.

Molecular and functional characterizations of a Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor FcKuSPI of the shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis

Serine proteinase inhibitors play important and diverse roles in biological processes such as coagulation, defense mechanisms, and immune responses. Here, we identified and characterized a Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor, designated FcKuSPI, of the BPTI/Kunitz family of serine proteinase inhibitors from the hemocyte cDNA library of the shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis. The deduced amino acid sequence of FcKuSPI comprises 80 residues with a putative signal peptide of 15 amino acids. The predicted molecular weight of the mature peptide is 7.66 kDa and its predicted isoelectric point is 8.84. FcKuSPI includes a Kunitz domain containing six conserved cysteine residues that are predicted to form three disulfide bonds. FcKuSPI shares 44e53% homology with BPTI/Kunitz family members from other species. FcKuSPI mRNAwas expressed highly in the hemocytes and moderately in muscle in healthy shrimp. Recombinant FcKuSPI protein demonstrated anti-protease activity against trypsin and anticoagulant activity against citrated human plasma in a dose-dependent manner in in vitro assays.

A novel ACVR1 mutation in the glycine/serine-rich domain found in the most benign case of a fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva variant reported to date

Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) is a rare, autosomal dominant condition, classically characterised by heterotopic ossification beginning in childhood and congenital great toe malformations; occurring in response to a c.617 G>A ACVR1 mutation in the functionally important glycine/serine-rich domain of exon 6. Here we describe a novel c.587 T>C mutation in the glycine/serine-rich domain of ACVR1, associated with delayed onset of heterotopic ossification and an exceptionally mild clinical course. Absence of great toe malformations, the presence of early ossification of the cervical spine facets joints, plus mild bilateral camptodactyly of the 5th fingers, together with a novel ACVR1 mutation, are consistent with the 'FOP-variant' syndrome. The c.587 T>C mutation replaces a conserved leucine with proline at residue 196. Modelling of the mutant protein reveals a steric clash with the kinase domain that will weaken interactions with FKBP12 and induce exposure of the glycine/serine-rich repeat. The mutant receptor is predicted to be hypersensitive to ligand stimulation rather than being constitutively active, consistent with the mild clinical phenotype. This case extends our understanding of the 'FOP-variant' syndrome.

The Expanded Human Kallikrein (KLK) gene family : genomic organisation, tissue specific expression and potential functions

The tissue kallikreins are serine proteases encoded by highly conserved multigene families. The rodent kallikrein (KLK) families are particularly large, consisting of 13 26 genes clustered in one chromosomal locus. It has been recently recognised that the human KLK gene family is of a similar size (15 genes) with the identification of another 12 related genes (KLK4-KLK15) within and adjacent to the original human KLK locus (KLK1-3) on chromosome 19q13.4. The structural organisation and size of these new genes is similar to that of other KLK genes except for additional exons encoding 5 or 3 untranslated regions. Moreover, many of these genes have multiple mRNA transcripts, a trait not observed with rodent genes. Unlike all other kallikreins, the KLK4-KLK15 encoded proteases are less related (25–44%) and do not contain a conventional kallikrein loop. Clusters of genes exhibit high prostatic (KLK2-4, KLK15) or pancreatic (KLK6-13) expression, suggesting evolutionary conservation of elements conferring tissue specificity. These genes are also expressed, to varying degrees, in a wider range of tissues suggesting a functional involvement of these newer human kallikrein proteases in a diverse range of physiological processes.

Modulation of the SHBG signalling axis

Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) is a homodimeric plasma glycoprotein that is the major sex steroid carrier-protein in the bloodstream and functions also as a key regulator of steroid bioavailability within target tissues, such as the prostate. Additionally, SHBG binds to prostatic cell membranes via the putative and unidentified SHBG receptor (RSHBG), activating a signal transduction pathway implicated in stimulating both proliferation and expression of prostate specific antigen (PSA) in prostate cell lines in vitro. A yeast-two hybrid assay suggested an interaction between SHBG and kallikrein-related protease (KLK) 4, which is a serine protease implicated in the progression of prostate cancer. The potential interaction between these two proteins was investigated in this PhD thesis to determine whether SHBG is a proteolytic substrate of KLK4 and other members of the KLK family including KLK3/PSA, KLK7 and KLK14. Furthermore, the effects from SHBG proteolytic degradation on SHBG-regulated steroid bioavailability and the activation of the putative RSHBG signal transduction pathway were examined in the LNCaP prostate cancer cell line. SHBG was found to be a proteolytic substrate of the trypsin-like KLK4 and KLK14 in vitro, yielding several proteolysis fragments. Both chymotrypsin-like PSA and KLK7 displayed insignificant proteolytic activity against SHBG. The kinetic parameters of SHBG proteolysis by KLK4 and KLK14 demonstrate a strong enzyme-substrate binding capacity, possessing a Km of 1.2 ± 0.7 µM and 2.1 ± 0.6 µM respectively. The catalytic efficiencies (kcat/Km) of KLK4 and KLK14 proteolysis of SHBG were 1.6 x 104 M-1s-1 and 3.8 x 104 M-1s-1 respectively, which were comparable to parameters previously reported for peptide substrates. N-terminal sequencing of the fragments revealed cleavage near the junction of the N- and C-terminal laminin globulin-like (G-like) domains of SHBG, resulting in the division of the two globulins and ultimately the full degradation of these fragments by KLK4 and KLK14 over time. Proteolytic fragments that may retain steroid binding were rapidly degraded by both proteases, while fragments containing residues beyond the steroid binding pocket were less degraded over the same period of time. Degradation of SHBG was inhibited by the divalent metal cations calcium and zinc for KLK4, and calcium, zinc and magnesium for KLK14. The human secreted serine protease inhibitors (serpins), α1-antitrypsin and α2-antiplasmin, inhibited KLK4 and KLK14 proteolysis of SHBG; α1-antichymotrypsin inhibited KLK4 but not KLK14 activity. The inhibition by these serpins was comparable and in some cases more effective than general trypsin protease inhibitors such as aprotinin and phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF). The binding of 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to SHBG modulated interactions with KLK4 and KLK14. Steroid-free SHBG was more readily digested by both enzymes than DHT-bound SHBG. Moreover, a binding interaction exists between SHBG and pro-KLK4 and pro-KLK14, with DHT strengthening the binding to pro-KLK4 only. The inhibition of androgen uptake by cultured prostate cancer cells, mediated by SHBG steroid-binding, was examined to assess whether SHBG proteolysis by KLK4 and KLK14 modulated this process. Proteolytic digestion eliminated the ability of SHBG to inhibit the uptake of DHT from conditioned media into LNCaP cells. Therefore, the proteolysis of SHBG by KLK4 and KLK14 increased steroid bioavailability in vitro, leading to an increased uptake of androgens by prostate cancer cells. Interestingly, different transcriptional responses of PSA and KLK2, which are androgen-regulated genes, to DHT-bounsd SHBG treatment were observed between low and high passage number LNCaP cells (lpLNCaP and hpLNCaP respectively). HpLNCaP cells treated with DHT-bound SHBG demonstrated a significant synergistic upregulation of PSA and KLK2 above DHT or SHBG treatment alone, which is similar to previously reported downstream responses from RSHBG-mediated signaling activation. As this result was not seen in lpLNCaP cells, only hpLNCaP cells were further investigated to examine the modulation of potential RSHBG activity by KLK4 and KLK14 proteolysis of SHBG. Contrary to reported results, no increase in intracellular cAMP was observed in hpLNCaP cells when treated with SHBG in the presence and absence of either DHT or estradiol. As a result, the modulation of RSHBG-mediated signaling activation could not be determined. Finally, the identification of the RSHBG from both breast (MCF-7) and prostate cancer (LNCaP) cell lines was attempted. Fluorescently labeled peptides corresponding to the putative receptor binding domain (RBD) of SHBG were shown to be internalized by MCF-7 cells. Crosslinking of the RBD peptide to the cell surfaces of both MCF-7 and LNCaP cells, demonstrated the interaction of the peptide with several targets. These targets were then captured using RBD peptides synthesized onto a hydrophilic scaffold and analysed by mass spectrometry. The samples captured by the RBD peptide returned statistically significantly matches for cytokeratin 8, 18 and 19 as well as microtubule-actin crosslinking factor 1, which may indicate a novel interaction between SHBG and these proteins, but ultimately failed to detect a membrane receptor potentially responsible for the putative RSHBG-mediated signaling. This PhD project has reported the proteolytic processing of SHBG by two members of the kallikrein family, KLK4 and KLK14. The effect of SHBG proteolysis by KLK4 and KLK14 on RSHBG-mediated signaling activation was unable to be determined as the reported signal transduction pathway was not activated after treatment with SHBG, in combination with either DHT or estradiol. However, the digestion of SHBG by these two proteases positively regulated androgen bioavailability to prostate cancer cells in vitro. The increased uptake of androgens is deleterious in prostate cancer due to the promotion of proliferation, metastasis, invasion and the inhibition of apoptosis. The increased bioavailability of androgens, from SHBG proteolysis by KLK4 and KLK14, may therefore promote both carcinogenesis and progression of prostate cancer. Finally, this information may contribute to the development of therapeutic treatment strategies for prostate cancer by inhibiting the proteolysis of SHBG, by KLK4 and KLK14, to prevent the increased uptake of androgens by hormone-dependent cancerous tissues.

Kallikrein-related peptidase 4 activation of protease-activated receptor family members and association with prostate cancer

Two areas of particular importance in prostate cancer progression are primary tumour development and metastasis. These processes involve a number of physiological events, the mediators of which are still being discovered and characterised. Serine proteases have been shown to play a major role in cancer invasion and metastasis. The recently discovered phenomenon of their activation of a receptor family known as the protease activated receptors (PARs) has extended their physiological role to that of signaling molecule. Several serine proteases are expressed by malignant prostate cancer cells, including members of the kallikreinrelated peptidase (KLK) serine protease family, and increasingly these are being shown to be associated with prostate cancer progression. KLK4 is highly expressed in the prostate and expression levels increase during prostate cancer progression. Critically, recent studies have implicated KLK4 in processes associated with cancer. For example, the ectopic over-expression of KLK4 in prostate cancer cell lines results in an increased ability of these cells to form colonies, proliferate and migrate. In addition, it has been demonstrated that KLK4 is a potential mediator of cellular interactions between prostate cancer cells and osteoblasts (bone forming cells). The ability of KLK4 to influence cellular behaviour is believed to be through the selective cleavage of specific substrates. Identification of relevant in vivo substrates of KLK4 is critical to understanding the pathophysiological roles of this enzyme. Significantly, recent reports have demonstrated that several members of the KLK family are able to activate PARs. The PARs are relatively new members of the seven transmembrane domain containing G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. PARs are activated through proteolytic cleavage of their N-terminus by serine proteases, the resulting nascent N-terminal binds intramolecularly to initiate receptor activation. PARs are involved in a number of patho-physiological processes, including vascular repair and inflammation, and a growing body of evidence suggests roles in cancer. While expression of PAR family members has been documented in several types of cancers, including prostate, the role of these GPCRs in prostate cancer development and progression is yet to be examined. Interestingly, several studies have suggested potential roles in cellular invasion through the induction of cytoskeletal reorganisation and expression of basement membrane-degrading enzymes. Accordingly, this program of research focussed on the activation of the PARs by the prostate cancer associated enzyme KLK4, cellular processing of activated PARs and the expression pattern of receptor and agonist in prostate cancer. For these studies KLK4 was purified from the conditioned media of stably transfected Sf9 insect cells expressing a construct containing the complete human KLK4 coding sequence in frame with a V5 epitope and poly-histidine encoding sequences. The first aspect of this study was the further characterisation of this recombinant zymogen form of KLK4. The recombinant KLK4 zymogen was demonstrated to be activatable by the metalloendopeptidase thermolysin and amino terminal sequencing indicated that thermolysin activated KLK4 had the predicted N-terminus of mature active KLK4 (31IINED). Critically, removal of the pro-region successfully generated a catalytically active enzyme, with comparable activity to a previously published recombinant KLK4 produced from S2 insect cells. The second aspect of this study was the activation of the PARs by KLK4 and the initiation of signal transduction. This study demonstrated that KLK4 can activate PAR-1 and PAR-2 to mobilise intracellular Ca2+, but failed to activate PAR-4. Further, KLK4 activated PAR-1 and PAR-2 over distinct concentration ranges, with KLK4 activation and mobilisation of Ca2+ demonstrating higher efficacy through PAR-2. Thus, the remainder of this study focussed on PAR-2. KLK4 was demonstrated to directly cleave a synthetic peptide that mimicked the PAR-2 Nterminal activation sequence. Further, KLK4 mediated Ca2+ mobilisation through PAR-2 was accompanied by the initiation of the extra-cellular regulated kinase (ERK) cascade. The specificity of intracellular signaling mediated through PAR-2 by KLK4 activation was demonstrated by siRNA mediated protein depletion, with a reduction in PAR-2 protein levels correlating to a reduction in KLK4 mediated Ca2+mobilisation and ERK phosphorylation. The third aspect of this study examined cellular processing of KLK4 activated PAR- 2 in a prostate cancer cell line. PAR-2 was demonstrated to be expressed by five prostate derived cell lines including the prostate cancer cell line PC-3. It was also demonstrated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy analyses that activation of PC-3 cell surface PAR-2 by KLK4 leads to internalisation of this receptor in a time dependent manner. Critically, in vivo relevance of the interaction between KLK4 and PAR-2 was established by the observation of the co-expression of receptor and agonist in primary prostate cancer and prostate cancer bone lesion samples by immunohistochemical analysis. Based on the results of this study a number of exciting future studies have been proposed, including, delineating differences in KLK4 cellular signaling via PAR-1 and PAR-2 and the role of PAR-1 and PAR-2 activation by KLK4 in prostate cancer cells and bone cells in prostate cancer progression.

Ryanodine receptor phosphorylation in human heart failure

Heart failure is a complex disorder, characterized by activation of the sympathetic nervous system, leading to dysregulated Ca2+ homeostasis in cardiac myocytes and tissue remodeling. In a variety of diseases, cardiac malfunction is associated with aberrant fluxes of Ca2+ across both the surface membrane and the internal Ca2+ store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). One prominent hypothesis residues is that in heart failure, the activity of the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) Ca2+ release channel in the SR is increased due to excess phosphorylation and that this contributes to excess SR Ca2+ leak in diastole, reduced SR Ca2+ load and decreased contractility (Huke & Bers, 2008). There is controversy over which serine residues in RyR2 are hyperphosphorylated in animal models of heart failure and whether this is via the CaMKII or the PKA-linked signaling pathway. S2808, S2814 and S2030 in RyR2 have been variously claimed to be hyperphosphorylated. Our aim was to examine the degree of phosphorylation of these residues in RyR2 from failing human hearts. The use of human tissue was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee, The Prince Charles Hospital, EC28114. Left ventricular tissue samples were obtained from an explanted heart of a patient with endstage heart failure (Emery Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy with cardiomyopathy) and non-failing tissue was from a patient with cystic fibrosis undergoing heart-lung transplantation with no history of heart disease. SR vesicles were prepared as described by Laver et al. (1995) and examined with SDS-Page and Western Blot. Transferred proteins were probed with antibodies to detect total protein phosphorylation, phosphorylation of RyR2 serine residues S2808, S2814, S2030 and for the key proteins calsequestrin, triadin, junctin and FKBP12.6. To avoid membrane stripping artifact, each membrane was exposed to one phosphorylation-specific antibody and signal densities quantified using Bio-Rad Quantity One software. We found no distinguishable difference between failing and healthy hearts in the protein expression levels of RyR2, triadin, junctin or calsequestrin. We found an expected upregulation of total RyR2 phosphorylation in the failing heart sample, compared to a matched amount of RyR2 (quantified using densiometry) in healthy heart. Probing with antibodies detecting only the phosphorylated form of the specific RyR2 residues showed that the increase in total RyR2 phosphorylation in the failing heart was due to hyperphosphorylation of S2808 and S2814. We found that S2030 phosphorylation levels were unchanged in human heart failure. Interestingly, we found that S2030 has a basal level of phosphorylation in the healthy human heart, different from the absence of basal phosphorylation recently reported in rodent heart (Huke & Bers, 2008). Finally, preliminary results indicate that less FKBP 12.6 is associated with RyR2 in the failing heart, possibly as a consequence of PKA activation. In conclusion, residues S2808 and S2814 are hyperphosphorylated in human heart failure, presumably due to upregulation of the CaMKII and/or PKA signaling pathway as a result of chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Such changes in RyR2 phosphorylation are believed to contribute to the leaky RyR2 phenotype associated with heart failure, which increases the incidence of arrhythmia and contributes to the severely impaired contractile performance of the failing heart. Huke S & Bers DM. (2008). Ryanodine receptor phosphorylation at serine 2030, 2808 and 2814 in rat cardiomyocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 376, 80-85. Laver DR, Roden LD, Ahern GP, Eager KR, Junankar PR & Dulhunty AF. (1995). Cytoplasmic Ca2+ inhibits the ryanodine receptor from cardiac muscle. Journal of Membrane Biology 147, 7-22. Proceedings

Substrate recognition and catalysis by the Holliday junction resolving enzyme Hje

Two archaeal Holliday junction resolving enzymes, Holliday junction cleavage (Hjc) and Holliday junction endonuclease (Hje), have been characterized. Both are members of a nuclease superfamily that includes the type II restriction enzymes, although their DNA cleaving activity is highly specific for four-way junction structure and not nucleic acid sequence. Despite 28% sequence identity, Hje and Hjc cleave junctions with distinct cutting patterns—they cut different strands of a four-way junction, at different distances from the junction centre. We report the high-resolution crystal structure of Hje from Sulfolobus solfataricus. The structure provides a basis to explain the differences in substrate specificity of Hje and Hjc, which result from changes in dimer organization, and suggests a viral origin for the Hje gene. Structural and biochemical data support the modelling of an Hje:DNA junction complex, highlighting a flexible loop that interacts intimately with the junction centre. A highly conserved serine residue on this loop is shown to be essential for the enzyme's activity, suggesting a novel variation of the nuclease active site. The loop may act as a conformational switch, ensuring that the active site is completed only on binding a four-way junction, thus explaining the exquisite specificity of these enzymes.

In vitro and in vivo examination of the cell surface glycoprotein CDCP1

A number of reports have demonstrated the importance of the CUB domaincontaining protein 1 (CDCP1) in facilitating cancer progression in animal models and the potential of this protein as a prognostic marker in several malignancies. CDCP1 facilitates metastasis formation in animal models by negatively regulating anoikis, a type of apoptosis triggered by the loss of attachment signalling from cell-cell contacts or cell-extra cellular matrix (ECM) contacts. Due to the important role CDCP1 plays in cancer progression in model systems, it is considered a potential drug target to prevent the metastatic spread of cancers. CDCP1 is a highly glycosylated 836 amino acid cell surface protein. It has structural features potentially facilitating protein-protein interactions including 14 N-glycosylation sites, three CUB-like domains, 20 cysteine residues likely to be involved in disulfide bond formation and five intracellular tyrosine residues. CDCP1 interacts with a variety of proteins including Src family kinases (SFKs) and protein kinase C ä (PKCä). Efforts to understand the mechanisms regulating these interactions have largely focussed on three CDCP1 tyrosine residues Y734, Y743 and Y762. CDCP1-Y734 is the site where SFKs phosphorylate and bind to CDCP1 and mediate subsequent phosphorylation of CDCP1-Y743 and -Y762 which leads to binding of PKCä at CDCP1-Y762. The resulting trimeric protein complex of SFK•CDCP1•PKCä has been proposed to mediate an anti-apoptotic cell phenotype in vitro, and to promote metastasis in vivo. The effect of mutation of the three tyrosines on interactions of CDCP1 with SFKs and PKCä and the consequences on cell phenotype in vitro and in vivo have not been examined. CDCP1 has a predicted molecular weight of ~90 kDa but is usually detected as a protein which migrates at ~135 kDa by Western blot analysis due to its high degree of glycosylation. A low molecular weight form of CDCP1 (LMWCDCP1) of ~70 kDa has been found in a variety of cancer cell lines. The mechanisms leading to the generation of LMW-CDCP1 in vivo are not well understood but an involvement of proteases in this process has been proposed. Serine proteases including plasmin and trypsin are able to proteolytically process CDCP1. In addition, the recombinant protease domain of the serine protease matriptase is also able to cleave the recombinant extracellular portion of CDCP1. Whether matriptase is able to proteolytically process CDCP1 on the cell surface has not been examined. Importantly, proteolytic processing of CDCP1 by trypsin leads to phosphorylation of its cell surface-retained portion which suggests that this event leads to initiation of an intracellular signalling cascade. This project aimed to further examine the biology of CDCP1 with a main of focus on exploring the roles played by CDCP1 tyrosine residues. To achieve this HeLa cells stably expressing CDCP1 or the CDCP1 tyrosine mutants Y734F, Y743F and Y762F were generated. These cell lines were used to examine: • The roles of the tyrosine residues Y734, Y743 and Y762 in mediating interactions of CDCP1 with binding proteins and to examine the effect of the stable expression on HeLa cell morphology. • The ability of the serine protease matriptase to proteolytically process cell surface CDCP1 and to examine the consequences of this event on HeLa cell phenotype and cell signalling in vitro. • The importance of these residues in processes associated with cancer progression in vitro including adhesion, proliferation and migration. • The role of these residues on metastatic phenotype in vivo and the ability of a function-blocking anti-CDCP1 antibody to inhibit metastasis in the chicken embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Interestingly, biochemical experiments carried out in this study revealed that mutation of certain CDCP1 tyrosine residues impacts on interactions of this protein with binding proteins. For example, binding of SFKs as well as PKCä to CDCP1 was markedly decreased in HeLa-CDCP1-Y734F cells, and binding of PKCä was also reduced in HeLa-CDCP1-Y762F cells. In contrast, HeLa-CDCP1-Y743F cells did not display altered interactions with CDCP1 binding proteins. Importantly, observed differences in interactions of CDCP1 with binding partners impacted on basal phosphorylation of CDCP1. It was found that HeLa-CDCP1, HeLa-CDCP1-Y743F and -Y762F displayed strong basal levels of CDCP1 phosphorylation. In contrast, HeLa-CDCP1-Y734F cells did not display CDCP1 phosphorylation but exhibited constitutive phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at tyrosine 861. Significantly, subsequent investigations to examine this observation suggested that CDCP1-Y734 and FAK-Y861 are competitive substrates for SFK-mediated phosphorylation. It appeared that SFK-mediated phosphorylation of CDCP1- Y734 and FAK-Y861 is an equilibrium which shifts depending on the level of CDCP1 expression in HeLa cells. This suggests that the level of CDCP1 expression may act as a regulatory mechanism allowing cells to switch from a FAK-Y861 mediated pathway to a CDCP1-Y734 mediated pathway. This is the first time that a link between SFKs, CDCP1 and FAK has been demonstrated. One of the most interesting observations from this work was that CDCP1 altered HeLa cell morphology causing an elongated and fibroblastic-like appearance. Importantly, this morphological change depended on CDCP1- Y734. In addition, it was observed that this change in cell morphology was accompanied by increased phosphorylation of SFK-Y416. This suggests that interactions of SFKs with CDCP1-Y734 increases SFK activity since SFKY416 is critical in regulating kinase activity of these proteins. The essential role of SFKs in mediating CDCP1-induced HeLa cell morphological changes was demonstrated using the SFK-selective inhibitor SU6656. This inhibitor caused reversion of HeLa-CDCP1 cell morphology to an epithelial appearance characteristic of HeLa-vector cells. Significantly, in vitro studies revealed that certain CDCP1-mediated cell phenotypes are mediated by cellular pathways dependent on CDCP1 tyrosine residues whereas others are independent of these sites. For example, CDCP1 expression caused a marked increase in HeLa cell motility that was independent of CDCP1 tyrosine residues. In contrast, CDCP1- induced decrease in HeLa cell proliferation was most prominent in HeLa- CDCP1-Y762F cells, potentially indicating a role for this site in regulating proliferation in HeLa cells. Another cellular event which was identified to require phosphorylation of a particular CDCP1 tyrosine residue is adhesion to fibronectin. It was observed that the CDCP1-mediated strong decrease in adhesion to fibronectin is mostly restored in HeLa-CDCP1-Y743F cells. This suggests a possible role for CDCP1-Y743 in causing a CDCP1-mediated decrease in adhesion. Data from in vivo experiments indicated that HeLa-CDCP1-Y734F cells are more metastic than HeLa-CDCP1 cells in vivo. This indicates that interaction of CDCP1 with SFKs and PKCä may not be required for CDCP1-mediated metastasis formation of HeLa cells in vivo. The metastatic phenotype of these cells may be caused by signalling involving FAK since HeLa-CDCP1- Y734F cells are the only CDCP1 expressing cells displaying constitutive phosphorylation of FAK-Y861. HeLa-CDCP1-Y762F cells displayed a very low metastatic ability which suggests that this CDCP1 tyrosine residue is important in mediating a pro-metastatic phenotype in HeLa cells. More detailed exploration of cellular events occurring downstream of CDCP1-Y734 and -Y762 may provide important insights into the mechanisms altering the metastatic ability of CDCP1 expressing HeLa cells. Complementing the in vivo studies, anti-CDCP1 antibodies were employed to assess whether these antibodies are able to inhibit metastasis of CDCP1 and CDCP1 tyrosine mutants expressing HeLa cells. It was found that HeLa- CDCP1-Y734F cells were the only cell line which was markedly reduced in the ability to metastasise. In contrast, the ability of HeLa-CDCP1, HeLa- CDCP1-Y743F and -Y762F cells to metastasise in vivo was not inhibited. These data suggest a possible role of interactions of CDCP1 with SFKs, occurring at CDCP1-Y734, in preventing an anti-metastatic effect of anti- CDCP1 antibodies in vivo. The proposal that SFKs may play a role in regulating anti-metastatic effects of anti-CDCP1 antibodies was supported by another experiment where differences between HeLa-CDCP1 cells and CDCP1 expressing HeLa cells (HeLa-CDCP1-S) from collaborators at the Scripps Research Institute were examined. It was found that HeLa-CDCP1-S cells express different SFKs than CDCP1 expressing HeLa cells generated for this study. This is important since HeLa-CDCP1-S cells can be inhibited in their metastatic ability using anti-CDCP1 antibodies in vivo. Importantly, these data suggest that further examinations of the roles of SFKs in facilitating anti-metastatic effects of anti-CDCP1 antibodies may give insights into how CDCP1 can be blocked to prevent metastasis in vivo. This project also explored the ability of the serine protease matriptase to proteolytically process cell surface localised CDCP1 because it is unknown whether matriptase can cleave cell surface CDCP1 as it has been reported for other proteases such as trypsin and plasmin. Furthermore, the consequences of matriptase-mediated proteolysis on cell phenotype in vitro and cell signalling were examined since recent reports suggested that proteolysis of CDCP1 leads to its phosphorylation and may initiate cell signalling and consequently alter cell phenotype. It was found that matriptase is able to proteolytically process cell surface CDCP1 at low nanomolar concentrations which suggests that cleavage of CDCP1 by matriptase may facilitate the generation of LWM-CDCP1 in vivo. To examine whether matriptase-mediated proteolysis induced cell signalling anti-phospho Erk 1/2 Western blot analysis was performed as this pathway has previously been examined to study signalling in response to proteolytic processing of cell surface proteins. It was found that matriptase-mediated proteolysis in CDCP1 expressing HeLa cells initiated intracellular signalling via Erk 1/2. Interestingly, this increase in phosphorylation of Erk 1/2 was also observed in HeLa-vector cells. This suggested that initiation of cell signalling via Erk 1/2 phosphorylation as a result of matriptase-mediated proteolysis occurs by pathways independent of CDCP1. Subsequent investigations measuring the flux of free calcium ions and by using a protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) agonist peptide confirmed this hypothesis. These data suggested that matriptase-mediated proteolysis results in cell signalling via a pathway induced by the activation of PAR2 rather than by CDCP1. This indicates that induction of cell signalling in HeLa cells as a consequence of matriptase-mediated proteolysis occurs via signalling pathways which do not involve phosphorylation of Erk 1/2. Consequently, it appears that future attempts should focus on the examination of cellular pathways other than Erk 1/2 to elucidate cell signalling initiated by matriptase-mediated proteolytic processing of CDCP1. The data presented in this thesis has explored in vitro and in vivo aspects of the biology of CDCP1. The observations summarised above will permit the design of future studies to more precisely determine the role of CDCP1 and its binding partners in processes relevant to cancer progression. This may contribute to further defining CDCP1 as a target for cancer treatment.

Correlation of the expression of human kallikrein-related peptidases 4 and 7 with the prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Background Very few articles have been written about the expression of kallikreins (KLK4 and KLK7) in oral cancers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine and report on their prognostic potential. Methods Eighty archival blocks of primary oral cancers were sectioned and stained for KLK4 and KLK7 by immunohistochemistry. The percentage and the intensity of malignant keratinocyte staining were correlated with patient survival using Cox regression analysis. Results Both kallikreins were expressed strongly in the majority of tumor cells in 68 of 80 cases: these were mostly moderately or poorly differentiated neoplasms. Staining was particularly intense at the infiltrating front. Patients with intense staining had significantly shorter overall survival (p < .05). Conclusion This is the first observation on the patient survival influenced by kallikrein expression in oral carcinoma. The findings are consistent with those for carcinomas at other sites, in particular the prostate and ovary. KLK4 and/or KLK7 immunohistochemistry seems to have diagnostic and prognostic potential in this disease.