Microwave gas discharge produced and sustained by a surface wave propagating along a cylindrical metal antenna with a dielectric coating

The structure of a microwave gas discharge produced and sustained by a surface wave (SW) propagating along a cylindrical metal antenna with a dielectric coating is studied. The SW that produces and sustains the microwave gas discharge propagates along an external magnetic field and has an eigenfrequency in the range between the electron cyclotron and electron plasma frequencies. The presence of a dielectric (vacuum) sheath region separating the antenna from the plasma is assumed. The spatial distributions of the produced plasma density, electromagnetic fields, energy flow density, phase velocity and reverse skin depth of the SW are obtained analytically and numerically.

Development of gas sensing technology for ground and airborne applications powered by solar energy : methodology and experimental results

Monitoring gases for environmental, industrial and agricultural fields is a demanding task that requires long periods of observation, large quantity of sensors, data management, high temporal and spatial resolution, long term stability, recalibration procedures, computational resources, and energy availability. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are currently representing the best alternative to monitor large, remote, and difficult access areas, as these technologies have the possibility of carrying specialised gas sensing systems, and offer the possibility of geo-located and time stamp samples. However, these technologies are not fully functional for scientific and commercial applications as their development and availability is limited by a number of factors: the cost of sensors required to cover large areas, their stability over long periods, their power consumption, and the weight of the system to be used on small UAVs. Energy availability is a serious challenge when WSN are deployed in remote areas with difficult access to the grid, while small UAVs are limited by the energy in their reservoir tank or batteries. Another important challenge is the management of data produced by the sensor nodes, requiring large amount of resources to be stored, analysed and displayed after long periods of operation. In response to these challenges, this research proposes the following solutions aiming to improve the availability and development of these technologies for gas sensing monitoring: first, the integration of WSNs and UAVs for environmental gas sensing in order to monitor large volumes at ground and aerial levels with a minimum of sensor nodes for an effective 3D monitoring; second, the use of solar energy as a main power source to allow continuous monitoring; and lastly, the creation of a data management platform to store, analyse and share the information with operators and external users. The principal outcomes of this research are the creation of a gas sensing system suitable for monitoring any kind of gas, which has been installed and tested on CH4 and CO2 in a sensor network (WSN) and on a UAV. The use of the same gas sensing system in a WSN and a UAV reduces significantly the complexity and cost of the application as it allows: a) the standardisation of the signal acquisition and data processing, thereby reducing the required computational resources; b) the standardisation of calibration and operational procedures, reducing systematic errors and complexity; c) the reduction of the weight and energy consumption, leading to an improved power management and weight balance in the case of UAVs; d) the simplification of the sensor node architecture, which is easily replicated in all the nodes. I evaluated two different sensor modules by laboratory, bench, and field tests: a non-dispersive infrared module (NDIR) and a metal-oxide resistive nano-sensor module (MOX nano-sensor). The tests revealed advantages and disadvantages of the two modules when used for static nodes at the ground level and mobile nodes on-board a UAV. Commercial NDIR modules for CO2 have been successfully tested and evaluated in the WSN and on board of the UAV. Their advantage is the precision and stability, but their application is limited to a few gases. The advantages of the MOX nano-sensors are the small size, low weight, low power consumption and their sensitivity to a broad range of gases. However, selectivity is still a concern that needs to be addressed with further studies. An electronic board to interface sensors in a large range of resistivity was successfully designed, created and adapted to operate on ground nodes and on-board UAV. The WSN and UAV created were powered with solar energy in order to facilitate outdoor deployment, data collection and continuous monitoring over large and remote volumes. The gas sensing, solar power, transmission and data management systems of the WSN and UAV were fully evaluated by laboratory, bench and field testing. The methodology created to design, developed, integrate and test these systems was extensively described and experimentally validated. The sampling and transmission capabilities of the WSN and UAV were successfully tested in an emulated mission involving the detection and measurement of CO2 concentrations in a field coming from a contaminant source; the data collected during the mission was transmitted in real time to a central node for data analysis and 3D mapping of the target gas. The major outcome of this research is the accomplishment of the first flight mission, never reported before in the literature, of a solar powered UAV equipped with a CO2 sensing system in conjunction with a network of ground sensor nodes for an effective 3D monitoring of the target gas. A data management platform was created using an external internet server, which manages, stores, and shares the data collected in two web pages, showing statistics and static graph images for internal and external users as requested. The system was bench tested with real data produced by the sensor nodes and the architecture of the platform was widely described and illustrated in order to provide guidance and support on how to replicate the system. In conclusion, the overall results of the project provide guidance on how to create a gas sensing system integrating WSNs and UAVs, how to power the system with solar energy and manage the data produced by the sensor nodes. This system can be used in a wide range of outdoor applications, especially in agriculture, bushfires, mining studies, zoology, and botanical studies opening the way to an ubiquitous low cost environmental monitoring, which may help to decrease our carbon footprint and to improve the health of the planet.

Atmospheric-pressure plasma jets : effect of gas flow, active species, and snake-like bullet propagation

Cold atmospheric-pressure plasma jets have recently attracted enormous interest owing to numerous applications in plasma biology, health care, medicine, and nanotechnology. A dedicated study of the interaction between the upstream and downstream plasma plumes revealed that the active species (electrons, ions, excited OH, metastable Ar, and nitrogen-related species) generated by the upstream plasma plume enhance the propagation of the downstream plasma plume. At gas flows exceeding 2 l/min, the downstream plasma plume is longer than the upstream plasma plume. Detailed plasma diagnostics and discharge species analysis suggest that this effect is due to the electrons and ions that are generated by the upstream plasma and flow into the downstream plume. This in turn leads to the relatively higher electron density in the downstream plasma. Moreover, high-speed photography reveals a highly unusual behavior of the plasma bullets, which propagate in snake-like motions, very differently from the previous reports. This behavior is related to the hydrodynamic instability of the gas flow, which results in non-uniform distributions of long-lifetime active species in the discharge tube and of surface charges on the inner surface of the tube.

SWCNT networks on nanoporous silica catalyst support : morphological and connectivity control for nanoelectronic, gas-sensing, and biosensing devices

Effective control of morphology and electrical connectivity of networks of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) by using rough, nanoporous silica supports of Fe catalyst nanoparticles in catalytic chemical vapor deposition is demonstrated experimentally. The very high quality of the nanotubes is evidenced by the G-to-D Raman peak ratios (>50) within the range of the highest known ratios. Transitions from separated nanotubes on smooth SiO2 surface to densely interconnected networks on the nanoporous SiO2 are accompanied by an almost two-order of magnitude increase of the nanotube density. These transitions herald the hardly detectable onset of the nanoscale connectivity and are confirmed by the microanalysis and electrical measurements. The achieved effective nanotube interconnection leads to the dramatic, almost three-orders of magnitude decrease of the SWCNT network resistivity compared to networks of similar density produced by wet chemistry-based assembly of preformed nanotubes. The growth model, supported by multiscale, multiphase modeling of SWCNT nucleation reveals multiple constructive roles of the porous catalyst support in facilitating the catalyst saturation and SWCNT nucleation, consistent with the observed higher density of longer nanotubes. The associated mechanisms are related to the unique surface conditions (roughness, wettability, and reduced catalyst coalescence) on the porous SiO2 and the increased carbon supply through the supporting porous structure. This approach is promising for the direct integration of SWCNT networks into Si-based nanodevice platforms and multiple applications ranging from nanoelectronics and energy conversion to bio- and environmental sensing.

Determining gas sampling timelines for estimating emissions in small chamber incubation experiments

A laboratory experiment was set up in small chambers for monitoring greenhouse gas emissions and determining the most suitable time for sampling. A six-treatment experiment was conducted, including a one week pre-incubation and a week for incubation. Timelines for sampling were 1, 2, 3, 6 and 24 hours after closing the lid of the incubation chambers. Variation in greenhouse gas fluxes was high due to the time of sampling. The rates of gas emissions increased in first three hours and decreased afterward. The rates of greenhouse gas emissions at 3 hours after closing lids was close to the mean for the 24-h period.

Social licence to operate and the coal seam gas industry : lessons from social issues in established mining operations?

The recent growth of the coal seam gas industry has increased pressure on regional communities. Debate surrounding the industry is intense and a social licence to operate has yet to be granted to the industry in its entirety. This article presents an analysis of social issues surrounding the coal seam gas industry, making comparisons between two case studies: the Ranger and Jabiluka mines and the Yandicoogina mine. It presents the results of a desktop study, focussed on three topics: community identity; procedural justice and distributive justice, which provides a means for comparison and draws attention to central concerns. It is found that: power imbalances; changing community identities; potentially inequitable distributions of long term benefits and the process to distribute those benefits and negative perceptions of the industry as a whole serve to undermine the provision of a social licence to operate by communities and has the potential to impose significant negative impacts on companies within the industry.

Preparation, characterization of surfactants modified clay minerals and nitrate adsorption

Organic surfactants modified clay minerals are usually used as adsorbents for hydrophobic organic contaminants remediation; this work however has shown organoclays can also work as adsorbents for hydrophilic anionic contaminant immobilization. Organoclays were prepared based on halloysite, kaolinite and bentonite and used for nitrate adsorption, which are significant for providing mechanism for the adsorption of anionic contaminants from waste water. XRD was used to characterize unmodified and surfactants modified clay minerals. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) was used to determine the thermal stability and actual loading of surfactant molecules. Ion chromatography (IC) was used to determine changes of nitrate concentration before and after adsorption by these organoclays. These organoclays showed different removal capacities for anionic ions from water and adsorption mechanism was investigated.

Adsorption of the herbicide 2,4-D on organo-palygorskite

Among the clay minerals, montmorillonite is the most extensively studied material using as adsorbents, but palygorskite and its organically modified products have been least explored for their potential use in contaminated water remediation. In this study, an Australian palygorskite was modified with cationic surfactants octadecyl trimethylammonium bromide and dioctadecyl dimethylammonium bromide at different doses. A full structural characterization of prepared organo-palygorskite by X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, surface analysis and thermogravimetric analysis was performed. The morphological changes of palygorskite before and after modification were recorded using scanning electron microscopy, which showed the surfactant molecules can attach on the surface of rod-like crystals and thus can weaken the interactions between palygorskite single crystals. Real surfactants loadings on organo-palygorskites were also calculated based on thermogravimetric analysis. 1 CEC, 2 CEC octadecyl trimethylammonium bromide modified palygorskites, 1 CEC and 2 CEC dioctadecyl dimethylammonium bromide modified palygorskites absorbed as much as 12 mg/g, 42 mg/g, 9 mg/g and 25 mg/g of 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid respectively. This study has shown a potential on organo-palygorskites for organic herbicide adsorption especially anionic ones from waste water. In addition, equilibration time effects and the Langmuir and Freundlich models fitting were also investigated in details.

Reduction and adsorption of Pb2+ in aqueous solution by nano zero-valent iron : a SEM, TEM and XPS study

This study reports the synthesis, characterization and application of nano zero-valent iron (nZVI). The nZVI was produced by a reduction method and compared with commercial available ZVI powder for Pb2+ removal from aqueous phase. Comparing with commercial ZVI, the laboratory made nZVI powder has a much higher specific surface area. XRD patterns have revealed zero valent iron phases in two ZVI materials. Different morphologies have been observed using SEM and TEM techniques. EDX spectrums revealed even distribution of Pb on surface after reaction. The XPS analysis has confirmed that immobilized lead was present in its zero-valent and bivalent forms. ‘Core-shell’ structure of prepared ZVI was revealed based on combination of XRD and XPS characterizations. In addition, comparing with Fluka ZVI, this lab made nZVI has much higher reactivity towards Pb2+ and within just 15 mins 99.9% removal can be reached. This synthesized nano ZVI material has shown great potential for heavy metal immobilization from waste water.

Greenhouse gas emissions in livestock production systems

Agriculture is responsible for a significant proportion of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (perhaps 18% globally), and therefore has the potential to contribute to efforts to reduce emissions as a means of minimising the risk of dangerous climate change. The largest contributions to emissions are attributed to ruminant methane production and nitrous oxide from animal waste and fertilised soils. Further, livestock, including ruminants, are an important component of global and Australian food production and there is a growing demand for animal protein sources. At the same time as governments and the community strengthen objectives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, there are growing concerns about global food security. This paper provides an overview of a number of options for reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions from ruminant production systems in Australia, while maintaining productivity to contribute to both objectives. Options include strategies for feed modification, animal breeding and herd management, rumen manipulation and animal waste and fertiliser management. Using currently available strategies, some reductions in emissions can be achieved, but practical commercially available techniques for significant reductions in methane emissions, particularly from extensive livestock production systems, will require greater time and resource investment. Decreases in the levels of emissions from these ruminant systems (i.e., the amount of emissions per unit of product such as meat) have already been achieved. However, the technology has not yet been developed for eliminating production of methane from the rumen of cattle and sheep digesting the cellulose and lignin-rich grasses that make up a large part of the diet of animals grazing natural pastures, particularly in arid and semi-arid grazing lands. Nevertheless, the abatement that can be achieved will contribute significantly towards reaching greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets and research will achieve further advances.

A review of the potential role of greenhouse gas abatement in native vegetation management in Queensland's rangelands

Concern about the risk of harmful human-induced climate change has resulted in international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. We review the international and national context for consideration of greenhouse abatement in native vegetation management and discuss potential options in Queensland. Queensland has large areas of productive or potentially productive land with native woody vegetation cover with approximately 76 million ha with woody cover remaining in 1991. High rates of tree clearing, predominantly to increase pasture productivity, continued throughout the 1990s with an average 345,000 ha/a estimated to have been cleared, including non-remnant (woody regrowth) as well as remnant vegetation. Estimates of greenhouse gas emissions associated with land clearing currently have a high uncertainty but clearing was reported to contribute a significant proportion of Australia's total greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 (21%) to 1999 (13%). In Queensland, greenhouse emissions from land clearing were estimated to have been 54.5 Mt CO(2)-e in 1999. Management of native vegetation for timber harvesting and the proliferation of woody vegetation (vegetation thickening) in the grazed woodlands also represent large carbon fluxes. Forestry (plantations and native forests) in Queensland was reported to be a 4.4 Mt CO(2)-e sink in 1999 but there are a lack of comprehensive data on timber harvesting in private hardwood forests. Vegetation thickening is reported for large areas of the c. 60 million ha grazed woodlands in Queensland. The magnitude of the carbon sink in 27 million ha grazed eucalypt woodlands has been estimated to be 66 Mt CO(2)-e/a but this sink is not currently included in Australia's inventory of anthropogenic greenhouse emissions. Improved understanding of the function and dynamics of natural and managed ecosystems is required to support management of native vegetation to preserve and enhance carbon stocks for greenhouse benefits while meeting objectives of sustainable and productive management and biodiversity protection.

The True Cost of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Analysis of 1,000 Global Companies

This study elucidated the shadow price of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for 1,024 international companies worldwide that were surveyed from 15 industries in 37 major countries. Our results indicate that the shadow price of GHG at the firm level is much higher than indicated in previous studies. The higher shadow price was found in this study as a result of the use of Scope 3 GHG emissions data. The results of this research indicate that a firm would carry a high cost of GHG emissions if Scope 3 GHG emissions were the focus of the discussion of corporate social responsibility. In addition, such shadow prices were determined to differ substantially among countries, among sectors, and within sectors. Although a number of studies have calculated the shadow price of GHG emissions, these studies have employed country-level or industry-level data or a small sample of firm-level data in one country. This new data from a worldwide firm analysis of the shadow price of GHG emissions can play an important role in developing climate policy and promoting sustainable development.

Measuring Productivity Gains from Deregulation of the Japanese Urban Gas Industry

The Japanese government initiated a series of regulatory reforms in the mid-1990s. The Japanese urban gas industry consists of various sized private and non-private firms. Numerous previous studies find that deregulation leads to productivity improvements. We extend the literature by analyzing deregulation, privatization, and other aspects of a regulated industry using unique firm level data. This study measures productivity to evaluate the effect of the deregulation reform. Using data from 205 firms from 1993 to 2004, we find that the deregulation effect differs depending on firm size. Competitive pressure contributes to advanced productivity. The deregulation of gas sales to commercial customers is the most important factor for advancing productivity. Copyright © 2013 by the IAEE. All rights reserved.

Insight into the thermal decomposition of kaolinite intercalated with potassium acetate : an evolved gas analysis

The thermal decomposition process of kaolinite–potassium acetate intercalation complex has been studied using simultaneous thermogravimetry coupled with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (TG-FTIR-MS). The results showed that the thermal decomposition of the complex took place in four temperature ranges, namely 50–100, 260–320, 320–550, and 650–780 °C. The maximal mass losses rate for the thermal decomposition of the kaolinite–potassium acetate intercalation complex was observed at 81, 296, 378, 411, 486, and 733 °C, which was attributed to (a) loss of the adsorbed water, (b) thermal decomposition of surface-adsorbed potassium acetate (KAc), (c) the loss of the water coordinated to potassium acetate in the intercalated kaolinite, (d) the thermal decomposition of intercalated KAc in the interlayer of kaolinite and the removal of inner surface hydroxyls, (e) the loss of the inner hydroxyls, and (f) the thermal decomposition of carbonate derived from the decomposition of KAc. The thermal decomposition of intercalated potassium acetate started in the range 320–550 °C accompanied by the release of water, acetone, carbon dioxide, and acetic acid. The identification of pyrolysis fragment ions provided insight into the thermal decomposition mechanism. The results showed that the main decomposition fragment ions of the kaolinite–KAc intercalation complex were water, acetone, carbon dioxide, and acetic acid. TG-FTIR-MS was demonstrated to be a powerful tool for the investigation of kaolinite intercalation complexes. It delivers a detailed insight into the thermal decomposition processes of the kaolinite intercalation complexes characterized by mass loss and the evolved gases.

Proposed MBMs for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping and the WTO rules

The international shipping sector is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has adopted some technical and operational measures to reduce GHG emissions from international shipping. However, these measures may not be enough to reduce the amount of GHG emissions from international shipping to an acceptable level. Therefore, the IMO Member States are currently considering a number of proposals for the introduction of market-based measures (MBMs). During the negotiation process, some leading developing countries raised questions about the probable confl ict of the proposed MBMs with the rules of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This article comprehensively examines this issue and argues that none of the MBM proposals currently under consideration by the IMO has any confl ict with the WTO rules.