MMP-9 secretion and MMP-2 activation distinguish invasive and metastatic sublines of a mouse mammary carcinoma system showing epithelial-mesenchymal transition traits

We have investigated the gelatinase profiles and invasiveness of clonal tumour sublines derived from a spontaneously arising mammary tumour in a Balb/cfC3H mouse. The 67NR, 66c14 and 4T1.2 sublines have low, intermediate and high metastatic potential respectively. In Boyden chamber studies, Matrigel invasion was seen to be progressively higher in the more metastatic lines 4T1.2>66c14>67NR, consistent with MMP-2 activation potential, MMP-9 secretion, and migration over either type I or IV collagen, which were low in both 67NR and 66c14 cells compared to 4T1.2 cells. These attributes are consistent with those seen in human breast cancer cell lines which appear to have undergone an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as indicated by vimentin expression. We were, however, surprised to find vimentin expression, MT1-MMP expression and stellate Matrigel outgrowth in the non-invasive, non-metastatic 67NR cells, indicating that they had undergone an EMT despite not being invasive. We conclude that the EMT is manifested to differing degrees in these three clonal cell lines, and that the 67NR cells have either undergone a partial EMT or have since lost certain important attributes of the EMT-derived phenotype. This model should prove useful in further characterizing the regulation of MT1-MMP mediated MMP-2 activation and delineating the EMT in breast cancer progression.

Mesenchymal to epithelial transition in development and disease

Cellular plasticity is fundamental to embryonic development. The importance of cellular transitions in development is first apparent during gastrulation when the process of epithelial to mesenchymal transition transforms polarized epithelial cells into migratory mesenchymal cells that constitute the embryonic and extraembryonic mesoderm. It is now widely accepted that this developmental pathway is exploited in various disease states, including cancer progression. The loss of epithelial characteristics and the acquisition of a mesenchymal-like migratory phenotype are crucial to the development of invasive carcinoma and metastasis. However, given the morphological similarities between primary tumour and metastatic lesions, it is likely that tumour cells re-activate certain epithelial properties through a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) at the secondary site, although this is yet to be proven. MET is also an essential developmental process and has been extensively studied in kidney organogenesis and somitogenesis. In this review we describe the process of MET, highlight important mediators, and discuss their implication in the context of cancer progression.

Defining the E-Cadherin repressor interactome in epithelial-mesenchymal transition : the PMC42 model as a case study

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a feature of migratory cellular processes in all stages of life, including embryonic development and wound healing. Importantly, EMT features cluster with disease states such as chronic fibrosis and cancer. The dissolution of the E-cadherin-mediated adherens junction (AJ) is a key preliminary step in EMT and may occur early or late in the growing epithelial tumour. This is a first step for tumour cells towards stromal invasion, intravasation, extravasation and distant metastasis. The AJ may be inactivated in EMT by directed E-cadherin cleavage; however, it is increasingly evident that the majority of AJ changes are transcriptional and mediated by an expanding group of transcription factors acting directly or indirectly to repress E-cadherin expression. A review of the current literature has revealed that these factors may regulate each other in a hierarchical pattern where Snail1 (formerly Snail) and Snail2 (formerly Slug) are initially induced, leading to the activation of Zeb family members, TCF3, TCF4, Twist, Goosecoid and FOXC2. Within this general pathway, many inter-regulatory relationships have been defined which may be important in maintaining the EMT phenotype. This may be important given the short half-life of Snail1 protein. We have investigated these inter-regulatory relationships in the mesenchymal breast carcinoma cell line PMC42 (also known as PMC42ET) and its epithelial derivative, PMC42LA. This review also discusses several newly described regulators of E-cadherin repressors including oestrogen receptor-α and new discoveries in hypoxia- and growth factor-induced EMT. Finally, we evaluated how these findings may influence approaches to current cancer treatment.

Vimentin and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in human breast cancer : observations in vitro and in vivo

Breast cancer is a highly prevalent disease among women worldwide. While the expression of certain proteins within these tumours is used for prognosis and selection of therapies, there is a continuing need for additional markers to be identified. A considerable amount of current literature, based predominantly on cell culture systems, suggests that a major mechanism responsible for the progression of breast cancer is due to tumour cells losing their epithelial features and gaining mesenchymal properties. These events are proposed to be very similar to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process that has been well characterised in embryonic development. For the developmental and putative cancer EMT, the cell intermediate filament status changes from a keratin-rich network which connects to adherens junctions and hemidesmosomes, to a vimentin-rich network connecting to focal adhesions. This review summarises observations of vimentin expression in breast cancer model systems, and discusses the potential role of EMT in human breast cancer progression, and the prognostic usefulness of vimentin expression.

Effect of constraint on ductile crack growth and ductile-brittle fracture transition of a carbon steel

Ductile-brittle fracture transition was investigated using compact tension (CT) specimens from -70oC to 40oC for a carbon steel. Large deformation finite element analysis has been carried out to simulate the stable crack growth in the compact tension (CT, a/W=0.6), three point-point bend (SE(B), a/W=0.1) and centre-cracked tension (M(T), a/W=0.5) specimens. Experimental crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) resistance curve was employed as the crack growth criterion. Ductile tearing is sensitive to constraint and tearing modulus increases with reduced constraint level. The finite element analysis shows that path-dependence of J-integral occurs from the very beginning of crack growth and ductile crack growth elevates the opening stress on the remaining ligament. Cleavage may occur after some ductile crack growth due to the increase of opening stress. For both stationary and growing cracks, the magnitude of opening stress increases with increasing in-plane constraint. The ductile-brittle transition takes place when the opening stress ahead of the crack tip reaches the local cleavage stress as the in-plane constraint of the specimen increases.

Remodeling of purinergic receptor-mediated Ca 2+ signaling as a consequence of EGF-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in breast cancer cells

Background The microenvironment plays a pivotal role in tumor cell proliferation, survival and migration. Invasive cancer cells face a new set of environmental challenges as they breach the basement membrane and colonize distant organs during the process of metastasis. Phenotypic switching, such as that which occurs during epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), may be associated with a remodeling of cell surface receptors and thus altered responses to signals from the tumor microenvironment. Methodology/Principal Findings We assessed changes in intracellular Ca 2+ in cells loaded with Fluo-4 AM using a fluorometric imaging plate reader (FLIPR TETRA) and observed significant changes in the potency of ATP (EC 50 0.175 μM (-EGF) versus 1.731 μM (+EGF), P<0.05), and the nature of the ATP-induced Ca 2+ transient, corresponding with a 10-fold increase in the mesenchymal marker vimentin (P<0.05). We observed no change in the sensitivity to PAR2-mediated Ca 2+ signaling, indicating that these alterations are not simply a consequence of changes in global Ca 2+ homeostasis. To determine whether changes in ATP-mediated Ca 2+ signaling are preceded by alterations in the transcriptional profile of purinergic receptors, we analyzed the expression of a panel of P2X ionotropic and P2Y metabotropic purinergic receptors using real-time RT-PCR and found significant and specific alterations in the suite of ATP-activated purinergic receptors during EGF-induced EMT in breast cancer cells. Our studies are the first to show that P2X 5 ionotropic receptors are enriched in the mesenchymal phenotype and that silencing of P2X 5 leads to a significant reduction (25%, P<0.05) in EGF-induced vimentin protein expression. Conclusions The acquisition of a new suite of cell surface purinergic receptors is a feature of EGF-mediated EMT in MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells. Such changes may impart advantageous phenotypic traits and represent a novel mechanism for the targeting of cancer metastasis.

The epithelial to mesenchymal transition and metastatic progression in carcinoma

Many data have emerged in support of the concept that the promotion of a migratory phenotype in epithelial cells is the result of an EMT, which leads to the loss of differentiation and to the acquisition of several mesenchymal features. Such an event is likely to occur during the metastatic conversion enabling the metastatic cell to invade the connective tissue and disseminate. Even though it cannot be excluded that some cancer cells might constitutively express a metastatic phenotype, the EMT implicated in the tumor progression process would rather be transient, induced in certain cells of the primary tumor by different factors, and reversed when the cells settle down in secondary organs (as schematically represented in Figure 1). However, it is clear that the phenotype that would emerge from the EMT occurring during tumor progression would also be modulated by the genetic background of the cells and must be to some extent different than the ones observed in normal physiological processes, and must also vary from one tumor to another.

Mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) as a mechanism for metastatic colonisation in breast cancer

As yet, there is no cure for metastatic breast cancer. Historically, considerable research effort has been concentrated on understanding the processes of metastasis, how a primary tumour locally invades and systemically disseminates using the phenotypic switching mechanism of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT); however, much less is understood about how metastases are then formed. Breast cancer metastases often look (and may even function) as 'normal' breast tissue, a bizarre observation against the backdrop of the organ structure of the lung, liver, bone or brain. Mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET), the opposite of EMT, has been proposed as a mechanism for establishment of the metastatic neoplasm, leading to questions such as: Can MET be clearly demonstrated in vivo? What factors cause this phenotypic switch within the cancer cell? Are these signals/factors derived from the metastatic site (soil) or expressed by the cancer cells themselves (seed)? How do the cancer cells then grow into a detectable secondary tumour and further disseminate? And finallyCan we design and develop therapies that may combat this dissemination switch? This review aims to address these important questions by evaluating long-standing paradigms and novel emerging concepts in the field of epithelial mesencyhmal plasticity.

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) an early-screening biomarker for ovarian cancer : NGAL is associated with epidermal growth factor-induced epithelio-mesenchymal transition

The expression of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has been shown to be upregulated in ovarian cancer cells. In this study, we report that the expression of immunoreactive NGAL (irNGAL) in ovarian tumors changes with disease grade and that this change is reflected in the concentration of NGAL in peripheral blood. A total of 59 ovarian tissues including normal, benign, borderline malignant and grades 1, 2 and 3 malignant were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. irNGAL was not present in normal ovaries and the NGAL expression was weak to moderate in benign tissues. Both borderline and grade 1 tumors displayed the highest amount of NGAL expression with moderate to strong staining, whereas in grade 2 and 3 tumors, the extent of staining was significantly less (p < 0.01) and staining intensity was weak to moderate. Staining in all cases was confined to the epithelium. NGAL expression was analyzed by ELISA in 62 serum specimens from normal and different grades of cancer patients. Compared to control samples, the NGAL concentration was 2 and 2.6-fold higher in the serum of patients with benign tumors and cancer patients with grade 1 tumors (p < 0.05) and that result was consistent with the expression of NGAL performed by Western blot. NGAL expression was evaluated by Western blot in an immortalized normal ovarian cell line (IOSE29) as well as ovarian cancer cell lines. Moderate to strong expression of NGAL was observed in epithelial ovarian cancer cell lines SKOV3 and OVCA433 while no expression of NGAL was evident in normal IOSE29 and mesenchyme-like OVHS1, PEO.36 and HEY cell lines. NGAL expression was downregulated in ovarian cancer cell lines undergoing epithelio-mesenchymal transition (EMT) induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF). Down-regulation of NGAL expression correlated with the upregulation of vimentin expression, enhanced cell dispersion and downregulation of E-cadherin expression, some of the hallmarks of EMT. EGF-induced EMT phenotypes were inhibited in the presence of AG1478, an inhibitor of EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activity. These data indicate that NGAL may be a good marker to monitor changes of benign to premalignant and malignant ovarian tumors and that the molecule may be involved in the progression of epithelial ovarian malignancies.

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition : new insights in signaling, development, and disease

The conversion of an epithelial cell to a mesenchymal cell is critical to metazoan embryogenesis and a de. ning structural feature of organ development. Current interest in this process, which is described as an epithelial- mesenchymal transition (EMT), stems from its developmental importance and its involvement in several adult pathologies. Interest and research in EMT are currently at a high level, as seen by the attendance at the recent EMT meeting in Vancouver, Canada (October 1-3, 2005). The meeting, which was hosted by The EMT International Association, was the second international EMT meeting, the . rst being held in Port Douglas, Queensland, Australia in October 2003. The EMT International Association was formed in 2002 to provide an international body for those interested in EMT and the reverse process, mesenchymal-epithelial transition, and, most importantly, to bring together those working on EMT in development, cancer, . brosis, and pathology. These themes continued during the recent meeting in Vancouver. Discussion at the Vancouver meeting spanned several areas of research, including signaling pathway activation of EMT and the transcription factors and gene targets involved. Also covered in detail was the basic cell biology of EMT and its role in cancer and . brosis, as well as the identi. cation of new markers to facilitate the observation of EMT in vivo. This is particularly important because the potential contribution of EMT during neoplasia is the subject of vigorous scientific debate (Tarin, D., E.W. Thompson, and D.F. Newgreen. 2005. Cancer Res. 65:5996-6000; Thompson, E.W., D.F. Newgreen, and D. Tarin. 2005. Cancer Res. 65:5991-5995).

Cadherins in the human placenta : epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and placental development

Colonisation of the maternal uterine wall by the trophoblast involves a series of alterations in the behaviour and morphology of trophoblast cells. Villous cytotrophoblast cells change from a well-organised coherently layered phenotype to one that is extravillous, acquiring a proliferative, migratory and invasive capacity, to facilitate fetal-maternal interaction. These changes are similar to those of other developmental processes falling under the umbrella of an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Modulation of cell adhesion and cell polarity occurs through changes in cell-cell junctional molecules, such as the cadherins. The cadherins, particularly the classical cadherins (e.g. Epithelial-(E)-cadherin), and their link to adaptors called catenins at cell-cell contacts, are important for maintaining cell attachment and the layered phenotype of the villous cytotrophoblast. In contrast, reduced expression and re-organization of cadherins from these cell junctional regions promote a loosened connection between cells, coupled with reduced apico-basal polarity. Certain non-classical cadherins play an active role in cell migration processes. In addition to the classical cadherins, two other cadherins which have been reported in placental tissues are vascular endothelial (VE) cadherin and cadherin-11. Cadherin molecules are well placed to be key regulators of trophoblast cell behaviour, analogous to their role in other developmental EMTs. This review addresses cadherin expression and function in normal and diseased human placental tissues, especially in fetal growth restriction and pre-eclampsia where trophoblast invasion is reduced.

Epithelial mesenchymal transition traits in human breast cancer cell lines parallel the CD44HI/CD24lO/-stem cell phenotype in human breast cancer

We review here the recently emerging relationship between epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and breast cancer stem cells (BCSC), and provide analyses of published data on human breast cancer cell lines, supporting their utility as a model for the EMT/BCSC state. Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of these cell lines has confirmed the existence of a subgroup with mesenchymal tendencies and enhanced invasive properties ('Basal B'/Mesenchymal), distinct from subgroups with either predominantly luminal ('Luminal') or mixed basal/luminal ('Basal A') features (Neve et al. Cancer Cell, 2006). A literature-derived EMT gene signature has shown specific enrichment within the Basal B subgroup of cell lines, consistent with their over-expression of various EMT transcriptional drivers. Basal B cell lines are found to resemble BCSC, being CD44highCD24low. Moreover, gene products that distinguish Basal B from Basal A and Luminal cell lines (Basal B Discriminators) showed close concordance with those that define BCSC isolated from clinical material, as reported by Shipitsin et al. (Cancer Cell, 2007). CD24 mRNA levels varied across Basal B cell lines, correlating with other Basal B Discriminators. Many gene products correlating with CD24 status in Basal B cell lines were also differentially expressed in isolated BCSC. These findings confirm and extend the importance of the cellular product of the EMT with Basal B cell lines, and illustrate the value of analysing these cell lines for new leads that may improve breast cancer outcomes. Gene products specific to Basal B cell lines may serve as tools for the detection, quantification, and analysis of BCSC/EMT attributes.

Epidermal growth factor-induced epithelio-mesenchymal transition in human breast carcinoma cells

PMC42-LA cells display an epithelial phenotype: the cells congregate into pavement epithelial sheets in which E-cadherin and β-catenin are localized at cell-cell borders. They abundantly express cytokeratins, although 5% to 10% of the cells also express the mesenchymal marker vimentin. Stimulation of PMC42-LA cells with epidermal growth factor (EGF) leads to epithelio-mesenchymal transition-like changes including up-regulation of vimentin and down-regulation of E-cadherin. Vimentin expression is seen in virtually all cells, and this increase is abrogated by treatment of cells with an EGF receptor antagonist. The expression of the mesenchyme-associated extracellular matrix molecules fibronectin and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan also increase in the presence of EGF. PMC42-LA cells adhere rapidly to collagen I, collagen IV, and laminin-1 substrates and markedly more slowly to fibronectin and vitronectin. EGF increases the speed of cell adhesion to most of these extracellular matrix molecules without altering the order of adhesive preference. EGF also caused a time-dependent increase in the motility of PMC42-LA cells, commensurate with the degree of vimentin staining. The increase in motility was at least partly chemokinetic, because it was evident both with and without chemoattractive stimuli. Although E-cadherin staining at cell-cell junctions disappeared in response to EGF, β-catenin persisted at the cell periphery. Further analysis revealed that N-cadherin was present at the cell-cell junctions of untreated cells and that expression was increased after EGF treatment. N- and E-cadherin are not usually coexpressed in human carcinoma cell lines but can be coexpressed in embryonic tissues, and this may signify an epithelial cell population prone to epithelio-mesenchymal-like responses.

Designing mixed species tree plantations for the tropics : balancing ecological attributes of species with landholder preferences in the Philippines

A mixed species reforestation program known as the Rainforestation Farming system was undertaken in the Philippines to develop forms of farm forestry more suitable for smallholders than the simple monocultural plantations commonly used then. In this study, we describe the subsequent changes in stand structure and floristic composition of these plantations in order to learn from the experience and develop improved prescriptions for reforestation systems likely to be attractive to smallholders. We investigated stands aged from 6 to 11 years old on three successive occasions over a 6 year period. We found the number of species originally present in the plots as trees >5 cm dbh decreased from an initial total of 76 species to 65 species at the end of study period. But, at the same time, some new species reached the size class threshold and were recruited into the canopy layer. There was a substantial decline in tree density from an estimated stocking of about 5000 trees per ha at the time of planting to 1380 trees per ha at the time of the first measurement; the density declined by a further 4.9% per year. Changes in composition and stand structure were indicated by a marked shift in the Importance Value Index of species. Over six years, shade-intolerant species became less important and the native shade-tolerant species (often Dipterocarps) increased in importance. Based on how the Rainforestation Farming plantations developed in these early years, we suggest that mixed-species plantations elsewhere in the humid tropics should be around 1000 trees per ha or less, that the proportion of fast growing (and hence early maturing) trees should be about 30–40% of this initial density and that any fruit tree component should only be planted on the plantation margin where more light and space are available for crowns to develop.

A comparative analysis of the conservative bridge transition design approaches

Differential settlement at the bridge approach between the deck and rail track on ground is often considered as a source of challenging technical and economical problem. This caused by the sudden stiffness changes between the bridge deck and the track on ground, and changes in soil stiffness of backfill and sub-grade with soil moisture content and loading history. To minimise the negative social and economic impacts due to poor performances of railway tracks at bridge transition zones, it is important, a special attention to be given at design, construction and maintenance stages. It is critically challenging to obtain an appropriate design solution for any given site condition and most of the existing conventional design approaches are unable to address the actual on-site behaviour due to their inherent assumptions of continuity and lack of clarifying of the local effects. An evaluation of existing design techniques is considered to estimate their contributions to a potential solution for bridge transition zones. This paper analyses five different approaches: the Chinese Standard, the European Standard with three different approaches, and the Australian approach. Each design approach is used to calculate the layer thicknesses, accounting critical design features such as the train speed, the axle load, the backfill subgrade condition, and the dynamic loading response. Considering correlation between track degradation and design parameters, this paper concludes that there is still a need of an optimised design approach for bridge transition zones.