A comparison between conductive and infrared devices for measuring mean skin temperature at rest, during exercise in the heat, and recovery

Purpose: Skin temperature assessment has historically been undertaken with conductive devices affixed to the skin. With the development of technology, infrared devices are increasingly utilised in the measurement of skin temperature. Therefore, our purpose was to evaluate the agreement between four skin temperature devices at rest, during exercise in the heat, and recovery. Methods: Mean skin temperature (T̅sk) was assessed in thirty healthy males during 30 min rest (24.0± 1.2°C, 56 ± 8%), 30 min cycle in the heat (38.0 ± 0.5°C, 41 ± 2%), and 45 min recovery(24.0 ± 1.3°C, 56 ± 9%). T̅sk was assessed at four sites using two conductive devices(thermistors, iButtons) and two infrared devices (infrared thermometer, infrared camera). Results: Bland–Altman plots demonstrated mean bias ± limits of agreement between the thermistors and iButtons as follows (rest, exercise, recovery): -0.01 ± 0.04, 0.26 ± 0.85, -0.37 ± 0.98°C; thermistors and infrared thermometer: 0.34 ± 0.44, -0.44 ± 1.23, -1.04 ± 1.75°C; thermistors and infrared camera (rest, recovery): 0.83 ± 0.77, 1.88 ± 1.87°C. Pairwise comparisons of T̅sk found significant differences (p < 0.05) between thermistors and both infrared devices during resting conditions, and significant differences between the thermistors and all other devices tested during exercise in the heat and recovery. Conclusions: These results indicate poor agreement between conductive and infrared devices at rest, during exercise in the heat, and subsequent recovery. Infrared devices may not be suitable for monitoring T̅sk in the presence of, or following, metabolic and environmental induced heat stress.

Raman and infrared spectroscopic studies of phurcalite from Red Canyon, Utah, USA – Implications for the molecular structure

Raman and infrared spectra of the uranyl mineral phurcalite, Ca2(UO2)3O2(PO4)2⋅7H2O, from Red Canyon, Utah, USA, were studied and tentatively interpreted. Observed bands were assigned to the stretching and bending vibrations of (UO2)2+ and (PO4)3− units and to the stretching and bending vibrations and libration modes of water molecules. Approximate lengths of U–O in (UO2)2+ and O–H⋯O hydrogen bond lengths were inferred from observed stretching vibrations. The presence of structurally nonequivalent U6+ and P5+ was inferred from the number of corresponding stretching bands of (UO2)2+ and (PO4)3− units observed in the Raman and infrared spectra..

Characterization of the sulphate mineral coquimbite, a secondary iron sulphate from Javier Ortega mine, Lucanas Province, Peru – Using infrared, Raman spectroscopy and thermogravimetry

The mineral coquimbite has been analysed using a range of techniques including SEM with EDX, thermal analytical techniques and Raman and infrared spectroscopy. The mineral originated from the Javier Ortega mine, Lucanas Province, Peru. The chemical formula was determined as ðFe3þ 1:37; Al0:63ÞP2:00ðSO4Þ3 9H2O. Thermal analysis showed a total mass loss of 73.4% on heating to 1000 C. A mass loss of 30.43% at 641.4 C is attributed to the loss of SO3. Observed Raman and infrared bands were assigned to the stretching and bending vibrations of sulphate tetrahedra, aluminium oxide/hydroxide octahedra, water molecules and hydroxyl ions. The Raman spectrum shows well resolved bands at 2994, 3176, 3327, 3422 and 3580 cm 1 attributed to water stretching vibrations. Vibrational spectroscopy combined with thermal analysis provides insight into the structure of coquimbite.

A Raman and infrared spectroscopic characterisation of the phosphate mineral phosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl from the Roote mine, Nevada, USA

Phosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl is rare Ca and Pb phosphate mineral that belongs to the apatite supergroup. We have analysed phosphohedyphane using SEM with EDX, and Raman and infrared spectroscopy. The chemical analysis shows the presence of Pb, Ca, P and Cl and the chemical formula is expressed as Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl. The very sharp Raman band at 975 cm−1 is assigned to the PO43-ν1 symmetric stretching mode. Raman bands noted at 1073, 1188 and 1226 cm−1 are to the attributed to the PO43-ν3 antisymmetric stretching modes. The two Raman bands at 835 and 812 cm−1 assigned to the AsO43-ν1 symmetric stretching vibration and AsO43-ν3 antisymmetric stretching modes prove the substitution of As for P in the structure of phosphohedyphane. A series of bands at 557, 577 and 595 cm−1 are attributed to the ν4 out of plane bending modes of the PO4 units. The multiplicity of bands in the ν2, ν3 and ν4 spectral regions provides evidence for the loss of symmetry of the phosphate anion in the phosphohedyphane structure. Observed bands were assigned to the stretching and bending vibrations of phosphate tetrahedra. Some Raman bands attributable to OH stretching bands were observed, indicating the presence of water and/or OH units in the structure.

Structural characterization of hydrogen peroxide‐oxidized anthracites by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectra

The structural characteristics of raw coal and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-oxidized coals were investigated using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectra, and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The results indicate that the derivative coals oxidized by H2O2 are improved noticeably in aromaticity and show an increase first and then a decrease up to the highest aromaticity at 24 h. The stacking layer number of crystalline carbon decreases and the aspect ratio (width versus stacking height) increases with an increase in oxidation time. The content of crystalline carbon shows the same change tendency as the aromaticity measured by XRD. The hydroxyl bands of oxidized coals become much stronger due to an increase in soluble fatty acids and alcohols as a result of the oxidation of the aromatic and aliphatic C‐H bonds. In addition, the derivative coals display a decrease first and then an increase in the intensity of aliphatic C‐H bond and present a diametrically opposite tendency in the aromatic C‐H bonds with an increase in oxidation time. There is good agreement with the changes of aromaticity and crystalline carbon content as measured by XRD and Raman spectra. The particle size of oxidized coals (<200 nm in width) shows a significant decrease compared with that of raw coal (1 μm). This study reveals that the optimal oxidation time is ∼24 h for improving the aromaticity and crystalline carbon content of H2O2-oxidized coals. This process can help us obtain superfine crystalline carbon materials similar to graphite in structure.

SEM, EDX, infrared and Raman spectroscopic characterization of the silicate mineral yuksporite

The mineral yuksporite (K,Ba)NaCa2(Si,Ti)4O11(F,OH)⋅H2O has been studied using the combination of SEM with EDX and vibrational spectroscopic techniques of Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscopy shows a single pure phase with cleavage fragment up to 1.0 mm. Chemical analysis gave Si, Al, K, Na and Ti as the as major elements with small amounts of Mn, Ca, Fe and REE. Raman bands are observed at 808, 871, 930, 954, 980 and 1087 cm−1 and are typical bands for a natural zeolite. Intense Raman bands are observed at 514, 643 and 668 cm−1. A very sharp band is observed at 3668 cm−1 and is attributed to the OH stretching vibration of OH units associated with Si and Ti. Raman bands resolved at 3298, 3460, 3562 and 3628 cm−1 are assigned to water stretching vibrations.

Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of kamphaugite-(Y)

We have studied the carbonate mineral kamphaugite-(Y)(CaY(CO3)2(OH)·H2O), a mineral which contains yttrium and specific rare earth elements. Chemical analysis shows the presence of Ca, Y and C. Back scattering SEM appears to indicate a single pure phase. The vibrational spectroscopy of kamphaugite-(Y) was obtained using a combination of Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Two distinct Raman bands observed at 1078 and 1088cm(-1) provide evidence for the non-equivalence of the carbonate anion in the kamphaugite-(Y) structure. Such a concept is supported by the number of bands assigned to the carbonate antisymmetric stretching mode. Multiple bands in the ν4 region offers further support for the non-equivalence of carbonate anions in the structure. Vibrational spectroscopy enables aspects of the structure of the mineral kamphaugite-(Y) to be assessed.

Near infrared spectroscopy of marble from Chillagoe, Australia and in comparison with other selected natural carbonates

Marble from the Chillagoe deposits was extensively used in the construction of Australia’s parliament house. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has been applied to study the quality of marble from the Chillagoe marble deposits and to distinguish between different types of marble in the Chillagoe deposits. A comparison of the NIR spectra of marble with dolomite and monohydrocalcite is made. The spectrum of the marble closely resembles that of monohydrocalcite and is different from that of dolomite. The infrared spectra of the minerals are characterised by OH and water stretching vibrations. Both the first and second fundamental overtones of these bands are observed in the NIR spectra. Marble is characterised by NIR bands at 4005, 4268 and 4340 cm–1, attributed to carbonate combination bands and overtones. Marble also shows NIR bands at 5005, 5106, 5234 and 5334 cm–1 assigned to water combination bands. Finally the NIR spectrum of the marble displays broad low-intensity features centred upon 6905 cm–1 attributed to the water first overtones. It appears feasible to identify marble through the use of NIR spectroscopy.

Raman and infrared spectroscopic characterization of the arsenate-bearing mineral tangdanite– and in comparison with the discredited mineral clinotyrolite

The minerals clinotyrolite and fuxiaotuite are discredited in terms of the mineral tangdanite. The mixed anion mineral tangdanite Ca2Cu9(AsO4)4(SO4)0.5(OH)9 9H2O has been studied using a combination of Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Characteristic bands associated with arsenate, sulphate and hydroxyl units are identified. Broad bands in the OH stretching region are observed and are resolved into component bands. These bands are assigned to water and hydroxyl stretching vibrations. Two intense Raman bands at 837 and approximately 734 cm−1 are assigned to the ν1 (AsO4)3− symmetric stretching and ν3 (AsO4)3− antisymmetric stretching modes. Infrared bands at 1023 cm−1 are assigned to the (SO4)2− ν1 symmetric stretching mode, and infrared bands at 1052, 1110 and 1132 cm−1 assigned to (SO4)2− ν3 antisymmetric stretching modes, confirming the presence of the sulphate anion in the tangdanite structure. Raman bands at 593 and 628 cm−1 are attributed to the (SO4)2− ν4 bending modes. Low-intensity Raman bands found at 457 and 472 cm−1 are assigned to the (AsO4)3− ν2 bending modes. A comparison is made with the previously obtained spectral data on the discredited mineral clinotyrolite.

Infrared and Raman spectroscopic characterization of the carbonate bearing silicate mineral aerinite – Implications for the molecular structure

The mineral aerinite is an interesting mineral because it contains both silicate and carbonate units which is unusual. It is also a highly colored mineral being bright blue/purple. We have studied aerinite using a combination of techniques which included scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Raman bands at 1049 and 1072 cm−1 are assigned to the carbonate symmetric stretching mode. This observation supports the concept of the non-equivalence of the carbonate units in the structure of aerinite. Multiple infrared bands at 1354, 1390 and 1450 cm−1 supports this concept. Raman bands at 933 and 974 cm−1 are assigned to silicon–oxygen stretching vibrations. Multiple hydroxyl stretching and bending vibrations show that water is in different molecular environments in the aerinite structure.

SEM, EDX and Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of brianyoungite Zn3(CO3,SO4)(OH)4 from Esperanza Mine, Laurion District, Greece

The mineral brianyoungite, a carbonate–sulphate of zinc, has been studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with chemical analysis using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) and Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Multiple carbonate stretching modes are observed and support the concept of non-equivalent carbonate units in the brianyoungite structure. Intense Raman band at 1056 cm−1 with shoulder band at 1038 cm−1 is assigned to the CO32− ν1 symmetric stretching mode. Two intense Raman bands at 973 and 984 cm−1 are assigned to the symmetric stretching modes of the SO42− anion. The observation of two bands supports the concept of the non-equivalence of sulphate units in the brianyoungite structure. Raman bands at 704 and 736 cm−1 are assigned to the CO32− ν4 bending modes and Raman bands at 507, 528, 609 and 638 cm−1 are assigned to the CO32− ν2 bending modes. Multiple Raman and infrared bands in the OH stretching region are observed, proving the existence of water and hydroxyl units in different molecular environments in the structure of brianyoungite. Vibrational spectroscopy enhances our knowledge of the molecular structure of brianyoungite.

A Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of the sulphate mineral aluminite Al2(SO4)(OH)4·7H2O

The mineral aluminite has been studied using a number of techniques, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) and Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy identifies multiple sulphate symmetric stretching modes in line with the three sulphate crystallographically different sites. Raman spectroscopy also identifies a low intensity band at 1069 cm−1 which may be attributed to a carbonate symmetric stretching mode, indicating the presence of thaumasite. The observation of multiple bands in this ν4 spectral region offers evidence for the reduction in symmetry of the sulphate anion from Td to C2v or even lower symmetry. The Raman band at 3588 cm−1 is assigned to the OH unit stretching vibration and the broad feature at around 3439 cm−1 to water stretching bands. Water stretching vibrations are observed at 3157, 3294, 3378 and 3439 cm−1. Vibrational spectroscopy enables an assessment of the molecular structure of aluminite to be made.

Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy and Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of tilleyite Ca5Si2O7(CO3)2-Y

The mineral tilleyite-Y, a carbonate-silicate of calcium, has been studied by scanning electron microscopy with chemical analysis using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) and Raman and infrared spectroscopy. Multiple carbonate stretching modes are observed and support the concept of non-equivalent carbonate units in the tilleyite structure. Multiple Raman and infrared bands in the OH stretching region are observed, proving the existence of water in different molecular environments in the structure of tilleyite. Vibrational spectroscopy offers new information on the mineral tilleyite.

Near infrared spectroscopy of selected natural magnesium carbonates: implications for geosequestration

The approach to remove greenhouse gases by pumping liquid CO2 several kilometres below the ground implies that many carbonate containing minerals will be formed. Among these minerals, the formation of hydromagnesite, dypingite and nesquehonite are possible, thus necessitating a study of such minerals. These minerals with a hydrotalcite-related formulae have been characterised by a combination of infrared and near infrared spectroscopy. Layered double hydroxides (also known as anionic clays or hydrotalcites) are a group of layered clay minerals described by the general formula: [M1–x2+Mx3+(OH)2]x+[An–]x/n∙mH2O. The infrared spectra of the minerals are characterised by OH and water stretching vibrations. Both the first and second fundamental overtones of these bands are observed in the NIR spectra in the 7030–7235 cm–1 and 10,490–10,570 cm–1 spectral ranges. Intense (CO3)2– symmetrical and anti-symmetrical stretching vibrations confirm the distortion of the carbonate anion. The position of the water bending vibration indicates water is strongly hydrogen-bonded to the carbonate anion in the mineral structure. NIR spectroscopy offers a method for quickly analysing such materials.

Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of turquoise minerals

Raman and infrared spectra of three well-defined turquoise samples, CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O, from Lavender Pit, Bisbee, Cochise county, Arizona; Kouroudaiko mine, Faleme river, Senegal and Lynch Station, Virginia were studied, interpreted and compared. Observed Raman and infrared bands were assigned to the stretching and bending vibrations of phosphate tetrahedra, water molecules and hydroxyl ions. Approximate O–H⋯O hydrogen bond lengths were inferred from the Raman and infrared spectra. No Raman and infrared bands attributable to the stretching and bending vibrations of (PO3OH)2− units were observed.