Theorizing why in e-learning – a frontier for cognitive engagement

Asking why is an important foundation of inquiry and fundamental to the development of reasoning skills and learning. Despite this, and despite the relentless and often disruptive nature of innovations in information and communications technology (ICT), sophisticated tools that directly support this basic act of learning appear to be undeveloped, not yet recognized, or in the very early stages of development. Why is this so? To this question, there is no single satisfactory answer; instead, numerous plausible explanations and related questions arise. After learning something, however, explaining why can be revealing of a person’s understanding (or lack of it). What then differentiates explanation from information; and, explanatory from descriptive content? What ICT scaffolding might support inquiry instigated by why-questioning? What is the role of reflective practice in inquiry-based learning? These and other questions have emerged from this investigation and underscore that why-questions often propagate further questions and are a catalyst for cognitive engagement and dialogue. This paper reports on a multi-disciplinary, theoretical investigation that informs the broad discourse on e-learning and points to a specific frontier for design and development of e-learning tools. Probing why reveals that versatile and ambiguous semantics present the core challenge – asking, learning, knowing, understanding, and explaining why.

A cognitive processing framework for learning analytics

Incorporating a learner’s level of cognitive processing into Learning Analytics presents opportunities for obtaining rich data on the learning process. We propose a framework called COPA that provides a basis for mapping levels of cognitive operation into a learning analytics system. We utilise Bloom’s taxonomy, a theoretically respected conceptualisation of cognitive processing, and apply it in a flexible structure that can be implemented incrementally and with varying degree of complexity within an educational organisation. We outline how the framework is applied, and its key benefits and limitations. Finally, we apply COPA to a University undergraduate unit, and demonstrate its utility in identifying key missing elements in the structure of the course.

The art of mooting : mooting and the cognitive domain

Mooting is modeled principally on appellate advocacy. However, the skill set developed by participating in a moot program – being that necessary to persuade someone to your preferred position – is indispensible to anyone practising law. Developing effective mooting skills in students necessitates the engagement of coaches with an appropriate understanding of the theories underlying mooting and advocacy practice and their interconnection with each other. This article explains the relevance of the cognitive domain to mooting performance and places it in context with the psychomotor and affective domains.

Denial predicts outcome in anxiety following group cognitive behavioral therapy

This study aimed to explore whether participants' pretherapy coping strategies predicted the outcome of group cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety and depression. It was hypothesized that adaptive coping strategies such as the use of active planning and acceptance would be associated with higher reductions, whereas maladaptive coping strategies such as denial and disengagement would be associated with lower reductions in anxious and depressed symptoms following psychotherapy. There were 144 participants who completed group CBT for anxiety and depression. Measures of coping strategies were administered prior to therapy, whereas measures of depression and anxiety were completed both prior to and following therapy. The results showed that higher levels of denial were associated with a poorer outcome, in terms of change in anxiety but not depression, following therapy. These findings suggest the usefulness of using the Denial subscale from the revised Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced (COPE) as a predictor of outcome in group CBT for anxiety.

Metacognition in substance misuse

Metacognitive theory provides a novel conceptual framework to understand the development and maintenance of psychopathology. It emphasizes the importance of stored knowledge guiding the individual’s plan for coping with heightened cognitive-affective arousal. According to the metacognitive model individuals experience strong affective responses and engage in a process of metacognitive appraisal and initiation of coping responses in the pursuit of cognitive-affective self-regulation. This chapter outlines the details of this theoretical approach as applied to substance misuse and the metacognitive treatment components aimed at interrupting the selection of maladaptive coping responses.

Impact of cognitive behaviour therapy via mail for cessation of benzodiazepine use : a series of case reports

Benzodiazepines are widely prescribed to manage sleep disorders, anxiety and muscular tension. While providing short-term relief, continued use induces tolerance and withdrawal, and in older users, increases the risk of falls. However, long-term prescription remains common, and effective interventions are not widely available. This study developed a self-managed cognitive behaviour therapy package for cessation of benzodiazepine use delivered to participants via mail (M-CBT) and trialled its effectiveness as an adjunct to a general practitioner (GP)-managed dose reduction schedule. In the pilot trial, participants were randomly assigned to GP management with immediate or delayed M-CBT. Significant recruitment and engagement problems were experienced, and only three participants were allocated to each condition. After immediate M-CBT, two participants ceased use, while none receiving delayed treatment reduced daily intake by more than 50%. Across the sample, doses at 12 months remained significantly lower than baseline, and qualitative feedback from participants was positive. While M-CBT may have promise, improved engagement of GPs and participants is needed for this approach to substantially impact on community-wide benzodiazepine use.

An Asian perspective of occupational stress coping model : a case study of Sri Lankan employees

Sri Lanka has one of the highest rates of natural disasters and violent conflicts in the world. Yet there is a lack of research on its unique socio-cultural characteristics that determine an individual's cognitive and behavioural responses to distressing encounters. This study extends Goh, Sawang and Oei's (2010) revised transactional model to examine the cognitive and behavioural processes of occupational stress experience in the collectivistic society of Sri Lanka. A time series survey was used to measure the participant's stress-coping process. Using the revised transactional model and path analysis, a unique Sri Lankan model is identified that provides theoretical insights on the revised transactional model, and sheds light on socio-cultural dimensions of occupational stress and coping, thus equipping practitioners with a sound theoretical basis for the development of stress management programs in the workplace.

Developing a framework for subcontractor appraisal using a balanced scorecard

Subcontractors contribute significantly to construction projects and their performance can seriously affect over-all project success. It is crucial, therefore, to appraise the performance of subcontractors to ensure they satisfy the client's expectations and project requirements. To increase the transparency and accuracy of subcontractor appraisal, the baseline and target performance levels should be set at the outset so that the appraisers and those being appraised realize exactly what standards are to be achieved. The balanced scorecard, being a powerful tool for performance appraisal, offers a potentially good approach for modeling the subcontractor appraisal process. In this paper, an approach to developing a balanced scorecard subcontractor appraisal model is proposed and demonstrated through a questionnaire survey administered in Hong Kong and from which the baseline and target performance levels for large-scale skilled subcontractors are identified. A case example is used to illustrate the operation of the model. Finally, a means by which the model may be validated is demonstrated through the use of field experts. The results demonstrate the feasibility of developing a balanced scorecard model that can help improve the transparency of subcontractor appraisal despite the baseline and target performance levels changing according to the project characteristics, subcontractor categories and size.

Factorial validity and invariance of questionnaires measuring social-cognitive determinants of physical activity among adolescent girls

Background There are few theoretically derived questionnaires of physical activity determinants among youth, and the existing questionnaires have not been subjected to tests of factorial validity and invariance, The present study employed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the factorial validity and invariance of questionnaires designed to be unidimensional measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and self-efficacy about physical activity. Methods Adolescent girls in eighth grade from two cohorts (N = 955 and 1,797) completed the questionnaires at baseline; participants from cohort 1 (N = 845) also completed the questionnaires in ninth grade (i.e., 1-year follow-up). Factorial validity and invariance were tested using CFA with full-information maximum likelihood estimation in AMOS 4.0, Initially, baseline data from cohort 1 were employed to test the fit and, when necessary, to modify the unidimensional models. The models were cross-validated using a multigroup analysis of factorial invariance on baseline data from cohorts 1 and 2, The models then were subjected to a longitudinal analysis of factorial invariance using baseline and follow-up data from cohort i, Results The CFAs supported the fit of unidimensional models to the four questionnaires, and the models were cross-validated, as indicated by evidence of multigroup factorial invariance, The models also possessed evidence of longitudinal factorial invariance. Conclusions Evidence was provided for the factorial validity and the invariance of the questionnaires designed to be unidimensional measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and self-efficacy about physical activity among adolescent girls, (C) 2000 American Health Foundation and academic Press.

Can physical activity prevent physical and cognitive decline in postmenopausal women? A systematic review of the literature

Background Participation in regular physical activity is among the most promising and cost effective strategies to reduce physical and cognitive decline and premature death. However, confusion remains about the amount, frequency, and duration of physical activity that is likely to provide maximum benefit as well as the way in which interventions should be delivered. Aims This paper aimed to review research on the impact of leisure-time and general physical activity levels on physical and cognitive decline in postmenopausal women. In a systematic review of the literature, empirical literature from 2009-2013 is reviewed to explore the potential impact of either commencing or sustaining physical activity on older women’s health. Results All studies found that physical activity was associated with lower rates of cognitive and physical decline and a significant reduction in all-cause mortality. In this review we found that exercise interventions (or lifestyle activities) that improved cardiorespiratory exercise capacity showed the most positive impact on physical health. Conclusions Findings suggest that programs should facilitate and support women to participate in regular exercise by embedding physical activity programs in public health initiatives, by developing home-based exercise programs that require few resources and by creating interventions that can incorporate physical activity within a healthy lifestyle. The review also suggests that clinicians should consider prescribing exercise in a tailored manner for older women to ensure that it is of a high enough intensity to obtain the positive sustained effects of exercise.

Relationship between expectation management and client retention in online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Background Engaging clients from the outset of psychotherapy is important for therapeutic success. However, there is little research evaluating therapists’ initial attempts to engage clients. This article reports retrospective analysis of data from a trial of online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for depression. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to evaluate how therapists manage clients’ expectations at the outset of therapy and its relationship with client retention in the therapeutic intervention. Aims To develop a system to codify expectation management in initial sessions of online CBT and evaluate its relationship with retention. Method Initial qualitative research using conversation analysis identified three different communication practices used by therapists at the start of first sessions: no expectation management, some expectation management, and comprehensive expectation management. These findings were developed into a coding scheme that enabled substantial inter-rater agreement (weighted Kappa = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.52 to 0.94) and was applied to all trial data. Results Adjusting for a range of client variables, primary analysis of data from 147 clients found comprehensive expectation management was associated with clients remaining in therapy for 1.4 sessions longer than those who received no expectation management (95% CI: -0.2 to 3.0). This finding was supported by a sensitivity analysis including an additional 21 clients (1.6 sessions, 95% CI: 0.2 to 3.1). Conclusions Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, this study suggests a relationship between expectation management and client retention in online CBT for depression, which has implications for professional practice. A larger prospective study would enable a more precise estimate of retention.

Managing clients’ expectations at the outset of online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for depression

Background Engaging clients in psychotherapy by managing their expectations is important for therapeutic success. Initial moments in first sessions of therapy are thought to afford an opportunity to establish a shared understanding of how therapy will proceed. However there is little evidence from analysis of actual sessions of therapy to support this. Objective This study utilised recordings to examine how therapists manage clients’ expectations during the first two sessions of online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). Methods Expectation management was investigated through conversation analysis of sessions from 176 client-therapist dyads involved in online CBT. The primary focus of analysis was expectation management during the initial moments of first sessions, with a secondary focus on expectations at subsequent points. Analysis Clients’ expectations for therapy were most commonly managed during the initial moments of first sessions of therapy. At this point, most therapists either outlined the tasks of the first and subsequent sessions (n=36), or the first session only (n=108). On other occasions (n = 32), no attempt was made to manage clients’ expectations by outlining what would happen in therapy. Observations of the interactional consequences of such an absence suggest clients may struggle to engage with the therapeutic process in the absence of appropriate expectation management by therapists. Conclusion Clients may more readily engage from the outset of therapy when provided with an explanation that manages their expectation of what is involved. Therapists can accomplish this by projecting how therapy will proceed, particularly beyond the initial session.

Disentangling the cognitive components supporting Austin Maze performance in left versus right temporal lobe epilepsy

Neuropsychological tests requiring patients to find a path through a maze can be used to assess visuospatial memory performance in temporal lobe pathology, particularly in the hippocampus. Alternatively, they have been used as a task sensitive to executive function in patients with frontal lobe damage. We measured performance on the Austin Maze in patients with unilateral left and right temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), with and without hippocampal sclerosis, compared to healthy controls. Performance was correlated with a number of other neuropsychological tests to identify the cognitive components that may be associated with poor Austin Maze performance. Patients with right TLE were significantly impaired on the Austin Maze task relative to patients with left TLE and controls, and error scores correlated with their performance on the Block Design task. The performance of patients with left TLE was also impaired relative to controls; however, errors correlated with performance on tests of executive function and delayed recall. The presence of hippocampal sclerosis did not have an impact on maze performance. A discriminant function analysis indicated that the Austin Maze alone correctly classified 73.5% of patients as having right TLE. In summary, impaired performance on the Austin Maze task is more suggestive of right than left TLE; however, impaired performance on this visuospatial task does not necessarily involve the hippocampus. The relationship of the Austin Maze task with other neuropsychological tests suggests that differential cognitive components may underlie performance decrements in right versus left TLE.

Wearable neuroimaging and emotion : investigating emotional responses to architectural environments with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Supported by contemporary theories of architectural aesthetics and neuro-aesthetics this paper presents a case for the use of portable fNIRS imaging in the assessment of emotional responses to spatial environments experienced by both blind and sighted. The aim of the paper is to outline the implications of fNIRS for spatial research and practice within the field of architecture, thereby suggesting a potential taxonomy of particular formations of space and affect. Empirical neurological study of affect and spatial experience from an architectural design perspective remains in many instances unchartered. Clinical research using the portable non-invasive neuro-imaging device, functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is proving convincing in its ability to detect emotional responses to visual, spatio-auditory and task based stimuli, providing a firm basis to potentially track cortical activity in the appraisal of architectural environments. Additionally, recent neurological studies have sought to explore the manifold sensory abilities of the visually impaired to better understand spatial perception in general. Key studies reveal that early blind participants perform as well as sighted due to higher auditory and somato-sensory spatial acuity. For instance, face vision enables the visually impaired to detect environments through skin pressure, enabling at times an instantaneous impression of the layout of an unfamiliar environment. Studies also report pleasant and unpleasant emotional responses such as ‘weightedness’ or ‘claustrophobia’ within certain interior environments, revealing a deeper perceptual sensitivity then would be expected. We conclude with justification that comparative fNIRS studies between the sighted and blind concerning spatial experience have the potential to provide greater understanding of emotional responses to architectural environments.

Evolving a synergistic approach to road safety : an appraisal of the project management, stakeholder engagement and change facilitation (PSC) approach by means of two case studies

Existing research and best practice were utilized to develop the Project Management, Stakeholder Engagement and Change Facilitation (PSC) approach to road safety infrastructure projects. Two case studies involving Queensland Transport and Main Roads demonstrated that use of the PSC has potential to create synergies for projects undertaken by multi-disciplinary road safety groups, and to complement Safe System projects and philosophy. The case studies were the North West Road Safety Alliance project, and the implementation of Road Safety Audit policy, and utilised a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods including interviews and surveys.