Evaluation of piezoelectric PVDF polymers for use in space environments. III. Comparison of the effects of vacuum UV and gamma radiation

Films of piezoelectric PVDF and P(VDF-TrFE) were exposed to vacuum UV (115-300 nm VUV) and -radiation to investigate how these two forms of radiation affect the chemical, morphological, and piezoelectric properties of the polymers. The extent of crosslinking was almost identical in both polymers after -irradiation, but surprisingly, was significantly higher for the TrFE copolymer after VUV-irradiation. Changes in the melting behavior were also more significant in the TrFE copolymer after VUV-irradiation due to both surface and bulk crosslinking, compared with only surface crosslinking for the PVDF films. The piezoelectric properties (measured using d33 piezoelectric coefficients and D-E hysteresis loops) were unchanged in the PVDF homopolymer, while the TrFE copolymer exhibited more narrow D-E loops after exposure to either - or VUV-radiation. The more severe damage to the TrFE copolymer in comparison with the PVDF homopolymer after VUV-irradiation is explained by different energy deposition characteristics. The short wavelength, highly energetic photons are undoubtedly absorbed in the surface layers of both polymers, and we propose that while the longer wavelength components of the VUV-radiation are absorbed by the bulk of the TrFE copolymer causing crosslinking, they are transmitted harmlessly in the PVDF homopolymer.

Evaluation of piezoelectric PVDF polymers for use in space environments. II. Effects of atomic oxygen and vacuum UV exposure

The effects of atomic oxygen (AO) and vacuum UV radiation simulating low Earth orbit conditions on two commercially available piezoelectric polymer films, poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) P(VDF-TrFE), have been studied. Surface erosion and pattern development are significant for both polymers. Erosion yields were determined as 2.8 � 10�24 cm3/atom for PVDF and 2.5 � 10�24 cm3/atom for P(VDF-TrFE). The piezoelectric properties of the residual material of both polymers were largely unchanged after exposure, although a slight shift in the Curie transition of the P(VDF-TrFE) was observed. A lightly cross-linked network was formed in the copolymer presumably because of penetrating vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) radiation, while the homopolymer remained uncross-linked. These differences were attributed to varying degrees of crystallinity and potentially greater absorption, and hence damage, of VUV radiation in P(VDFTrFE) compared with PVDF.

Evaluation of piezoelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride) polymers for use in space environments. I. Temperature limitations

Smart materials, such as thin-film piezoelectric polymers, are interesting for potential applications on Gossamer spacecraft. This investigation aims to predict the performance and long-term stability of the piezoelectric properties of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and its copolymers under conditions simulating the low-Earthorbit environment. To examine the effects of temperature on the piezoelectric properties of PVDF, poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-trifluoroethylene), and poly(vinylidenefluoride-cohexafluoropropylene), the d33 piezoelectric coefficients were measured up to 160 8C, and the electric displacement/electric field (D–E) hysteresis loops were measured from �80 to þ110 8C. The room-temperature d33 coefficient of PVDF homopolymer films, annealed at 50, 80, and 125 8C, dropped rapidly within a few days of thermal exposure and then remained unchanged. In contrast, the TrFE copolymer exhibited greater thermal stability than the homopolymer, with d33 remaining almost unchanged up to 125 8C. The HFP copolymer exhibited poor retention of d33 at temperatures above 80 8C. In situ D–E loop measurements from �80 to þ110 8C showed that the remanent polarization of the TrFE copolymer was more stable than that of the PVDF homopolymer. D–E hysteresis loop and d33 results were also compared with the deflection of the PVDF homopolymer and TrFE copolymer bimorphs tested over a wide temperature range.

Selection and optimization of piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride polymers for adaptive optics in space environments

Various piezoelectric polymers based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are of interest for large aperture space-based telescopes. Dimensional adjustments of adaptive polymer films depend on charge deposition and require a detailed understanding of the piezoelectric material responses which are expected to deteriorate owing to strong vacuum UV, � -, X-ray, energetic particles and atomic oxygen exposure. We have investigated the degradation of PVDF and its copolymers under various stress environments detrimental to reliable operation in space. Initial radiation aging studies have shown complex material changes with lowered Curie temperatures, complex material changes with lowered melting points, morphological transformations and significant crosslinking, but little influence on piezoelectric d33 constants. Complex aging processes have also been observed in accelerated temperature environments inducing annealing phenomena and cyclic stresses. The results suggest that poling and chain orientation are negatively affected by radiation and temperature exposure. A framework for dealing with these complex material qualification issues and overall system survivability predictions in low earth orbit conditions has been established. It allows for improved material selection, feedback for manufacturing and processing, material optimization/stabilization strategies and provides guidance on any alternative materials.

Effect of simulated space environments on piezoelectric vinylidene flouride-based polymers

Piezoelectric polymers based on polyvinylidene flouride (PVDF) are of interest as adaptive materials for large aperture space-based telescopes. In this study, two piezoelectric polymers, PVDF and P(VDF-TrFE), were exposed to conditions simulating the thermal, radiative and atomic oxygen conditions of low Earth orbit. The degradation pathways were governed by a combination of chemical and physical degradation processes with the molecular changes primarily induced via radiative damage, and physical damage from temperature and atomic oxygen exposure, as evident from depoling, loss of orientation and surface erosion. The piezoelectric responsiveness of each polymer was strongly dependent on exposure temperature. Radiation and atomic oxygen exposure caused physical and chemical degradation, which would ultimately cause terminal damage of thin films, but did not adversely affect the piezoelectric properties.

Degradation of piezoelectric fluropolymers in space environments

The performance criteria of piezoelectric polymers based on polyvinylidene flouride (PVDF) in complex space environments have been evaluated. Thin films of these materials are being explored as in-situ responsive materials for large aperture space-based telescopes with the shape deformation and optical features dependent on long-term deformation and optical features dependent on long-term degradation effects, mainly due to thermal cycling, vacuum UV exposure and atomic oxygen. A summary of previous studies related to materials testing and performance prediction based on a laboratory environment is presented. The degradation pathways are a combination of molecular chemical changes primarily induced via radiative damage and physical degradation processes due to temperature and atomic oxygen exposure resulting in depoling, loss of orientation and surface erosing. Experimental validation for these materials to be used in space is being conducted as part of MISSE-6 (Materials International Space Station Experiment) with an overview of the experimental strategies discussed here.

Piezoelectric vinylidene-fluoride based polymers for use in space environments

The effects of simulated low earth orbit conditions on vinylidene-fluoride based thin-film piezoelectrics for use in lightweight, large surface area spacecraft such as telescope mirrors and antennae is presented. The environmental factors considered as having the greatest potential to cause damage are temperature, atomic oxygen and vacuum UV radiation. Using the piezoelectric strain coefficients and bimorph deflection measurements the piezoelectric performance over the temperature range -100 to +150°C was studied. The effects of simultaneous AO/VUV exposure were also examined and films characterized by their piezoelectric, surface, and thermal properties. Two fluorinated piezoelectric polymers, poly(vinylidene fluoride) and poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene), were adversely affected at elevated temperatures due to depoling caused by randomization of the dipole orientation, while AO/VUV contributed little to depoling but did cause significant surface erosion and, in the case of P(VDF-TrFE), bulk crosslinking. These results highlight the importance of materials selection for use in space environments.

Piezoelectric PVDF materials performance and operation limits in space environments

Piezoelectric polymers based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are of interest for large aperture space-based telescopes. Dimensional adjustments of adaptive polymer films are achieved via charge deposition and require a detailed understanding of the piezoelectric material responses which are expected to suffer due to strong vacuum UV, gamma, X-ray, energetic particles and atomic oxygen under low earth orbit exposure conditions. The degradation of PVDF and its copolymers under various stress environments has been investigated. Initial radiation aging studies using gamma- and e-beam irradiation have shown complex material changes with significant crosslinking, lowered melting and Curie points (where observable), effects on crystallinity, but little influence on overall piezoelectric properties. Surprisingly, complex aging processes have also been observed in elevated temperature environments with annealing phenomena and cyclic stresses resulting in thermal depoling of domains. Overall materials performance appears to be governed by a combination of chemical and physical degradation processes. Molecular changes are primarily induced via radiative damage, and physical damage from temperature and AO exposure is evident as depoling and surface erosion. Major differences between individual copolymers have been observed providing feedback on material selection strategies.

Bispectral and trispectral characterization of transition to chaos in the Duffing oscillator

Higher-order spectral (bispectral and trispectral) analyses of numerical solutions of the Duffing equation with a cubic stiffness are used to isolate the coupling between the triads and quartets, respectively, of nonlinearly interacting Fourier components of the system. The Duffing oscillator follows a period-doubling intermittency catastrophic route to chaos. For period-doubled limit cycles, higher-order spectra indicate that both quadratic and cubic nonlinear interactions are important to the dynamics. However, when the Duffing oscillator becomes chaotic, global behavior of the cubic nonlinearity becomes dominant and quadratic nonlinear interactions are weak, while cubic interactions remain strong. As the nonlinearity of the system is increased, the number of excited Fourier components increases, eventually leading to broad-band power spectra for chaos. The corresponding higher-order spectra indicate that although some individual nonlinear interactions weaken as nonlinearity increases, the number of nonlinearly interacting Fourier modes increases. Trispectra indicate that the cubic interactions gradually evolve from encompassing a few quartets of Fourier components for period-1 motion to encompassing many quartets for chaos. For chaos, all the components within the energetic part of the power spectrum are cubically (but not quadratically) coupled to each other.

A high frequency current source converter with adjustable magnitude to drive high power piezoelectric transducers

A general electrical model of a piezoelectric transducer for ultrasound applications consists of a capacitor in parallel with RLC legs. A high power voltage source converter can however generate significant voltage stress across the transducer that creates high leakage currents. One solution is to reduce the voltage stress across the piezoelectric transducer by using an LC filter, however a main drawback is changing the piezoelectric resonant frequency and its characteristics. Thereby it reduces the efficiency of energy conversion through the transducer. This paper proposes that a high frequency current source converter is a suitable topology to drive high power piezoelectric transducers efficiently.

Improving the efficiency of high power piezoelectric transducers for industrial applications

Most high-power ultrasound applications are driven by two-level inverters. However, the broad spectral content of the two-level pulse results in undesired harmonics that can decrease the performance of the system significantly. On the other hand, it is crucial to excite the piezoelectric devices at their main resonant frequency in order to have maximum energy conversion. Therefore a high-quality, low-distorted power signal is needed to excite the high-power piezoelectric transducer at its resonant frequency. This study proposes an efficient approach to develop the performance of high-power ultrasonic applications using multilevel inverters along with a frequency estimation algorithm. In this method, the resonant frequencies are estimated based on relative minimums of the piezoelectric impedance frequency response. The algorithm follows the resonant frequency variation and adapts the multilevel inverter reference frequency to drive an ultrasound transducer at high power. Extensive simulation and experimental results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Improving ultrasound excitation systems using a flexible power supply with adjustable voltage and frequency to drive piezoelectric transducers

The ability of a piezoelectric transducer in energy conversion is rapidly expanding in several applications. Some of the industrial applications for which a high power ultrasound transducer can be used are surface cleaning, water treatment, plastic welding and food sterilization. Also, a high power ultrasound transducer plays a great role in biomedical applications such as diagnostic and therapeutic applications. An ultrasound transducer is usually applied to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa. In some high power ultrasound system, ultrasound transducers are applied as a transmitter, as a receiver or both. As a transmitter, it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy while a receiver converts mechanical energy to electrical energy as a sensor for control system. Once a piezoelectric transducer is excited by electrical signal, piezoelectric material starts to vibrate and generates ultrasound waves. A portion of the ultrasound waves which passes through the medium will be sensed by the receiver and converted to electrical energy. To drive an ultrasound transducer, an excitation signal should be properly designed otherwise undesired signal (low quality) can deteriorate the performance of the transducer (energy conversion) and increase power consumption in the system. For instance, some portion of generated power may be delivered in unwanted frequency which is not acceptable for some applications especially for biomedical applications. To achieve better performance of the transducer, along with the quality of the excitation signal, the characteristics of the high power ultrasound transducer should be taken into consideration as well. In this regard, several simulation and experimental tests are carried out in this research to model high power ultrasound transducers and systems. During these experiments, high power ultrasound transducers are excited by several excitation signals with different amplitudes and frequencies, using a network analyser, a signal generator, a high power amplifier and a multilevel converter. Also, to analyse the behaviour of the ultrasound system, the voltage ratio of the system is measured in different tests. The voltage across transmitter is measured as an input voltage then divided by the output voltage which is measured across receiver. The results of the transducer characteristics and the ultrasound system behaviour are discussed in chapter 4 and 5 of this thesis. Each piezoelectric transducer has several resonance frequencies in which its impedance has lower magnitude as compared to non-resonance frequencies. Among these resonance frequencies, just at one of those frequencies, the magnitude of the impedance is minimum. This resonance frequency is known as the main resonance frequency of the transducer. To attain higher efficiency and deliver more power to the ultrasound system, the transducer is usually excited at the main resonance frequency. Therefore, it is important to find out this frequency and other resonance frequencies. Hereof, a frequency detection method is proposed in this research which is discussed in chapter 2. An extended electrical model of the ultrasound transducer with multiple resonance frequencies consists of several RLC legs in parallel with a capacitor. Each RLC leg represents one of the resonance frequencies of the ultrasound transducer. At resonance frequency the inductor reactance and capacitor reactance cancel out each other and the resistor of this leg represents power conversion of the system at that frequency. This concept is shown in simulation and test results presented in chapter 4. To excite a high power ultrasound transducer, a high power signal is required. Multilevel converters are usually applied to generate a high power signal but the drawback of this signal is low quality in comparison with a sinusoidal signal. In some applications like ultrasound, it is extensively important to generate a high quality signal. Several control and modulation techniques are introduced in different papers to control the output voltage of the multilevel converters. One of those techniques is harmonic elimination technique. In this technique, switching angles are chosen in such way to reduce harmonic contents in the output side. It is undeniable that increasing the number of the switching angles results in more harmonic reduction. But to have more switching angles, more output voltage levels are required which increase the number of components and cost of the converter. To improve the quality of the output voltage signal with no more components, a new harmonic elimination technique is proposed in this research. Based on this new technique, more variables (DC voltage levels and switching angles) are chosen to eliminate more low order harmonics compared to conventional harmonic elimination techniques. In conventional harmonic elimination method, DC voltage levels are same and only switching angles are calculated to eliminate harmonics. Therefore, the number of eliminated harmonic is limited by the number of switching cycles. In the proposed modulation technique, the switching angles and the DC voltage levels are calculated off-line to eliminate more harmonics. Therefore, the DC voltage levels are not equal and should be regulated. To achieve this aim, a DC/DC converter is applied to adjust the DC link voltages with several capacitors. The effect of the new harmonic elimination technique on the output quality of several single phase multilevel converters is explained in chapter 3 and 6 of this thesis. According to the electrical model of high power ultrasound transducer, this device can be modelled as parallel combinations of RLC legs with a main capacitor. The impedance diagram of the transducer in frequency domain shows it has capacitive characteristics in almost all frequencies. Therefore, using a voltage source converter to drive a high power ultrasound transducer can create significant leakage current through the transducer. It happens due to significant voltage stress (dv/dt) across the transducer. To remedy this problem, LC filters are applied in some applications. For some applications such as ultrasound, using a LC filter can deteriorate the performance of the transducer by changing its characteristics and displacing the resonance frequency of the transducer. For such a case a current source converter could be a suitable choice to overcome this problem. In this regard, a current source converter is implemented and applied to excite the high power ultrasound transducer. To control the output current and voltage, a hysteresis control and unipolar modulation are used respectively. The results of this test are explained in chapter 7.