Japanese encephalitis virus infection of mouse cell lines: ability to prime mice for generation of virus specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and differences in CTL recognisable viral determinants

Ten different mouse cell lines were examined for Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection in vitro and then tested for their ability to generate virus specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Among all cell lines examined, Neuro La (a neuroblastoma) was readily infected with JEV as examined by immunofluorescence and viral replication. Among other cells, P388D1, RAW 264.7 (Macrophage origin), Sp2/0 (B-cell Hybridoma), YAC-1 (T-cell lymphoma), and L929 (Fibroblast) were semipermissive to JEV infection. The cytopathic effects caused by progressive JEV infection varied from cell line to cell line. In the case of YAC-1 cells long-term viral antigen expression was observed without significant alterations in cell viability. Intermediate degrees of cytopathicity are seen in RAW 264.7 and L929 cells while infection of PS, Neuro 2a, P388D1 and Sp2/0 caused major viability losses. All infected cell lines were able to prime adult BALB/c (H-2(d)) mice for the generation of secondary JEV specific CTL. In contrast to YAC-1, the permissive neuroblastoma cell line Neuro 2a (H-2K(k)D(d)) was found to be least efficient in its ability to stimulate anti-viral CTL generation. Cold target competition studies demonstrated that both Neuro 2a and YAC-1 (H-2K(k)D(d)) cells expressed similar viral determinants that are recognised by CTL, suggesting that the reason for the lower ability of Neuro 2a to stimulate anti-viral CTL was not due to lack of viral CTL determinants. These findings demonstrate that a variety of mouse cell lines can be infected with Japanese encephalitis virus, and that these infected cells could be utilised to generate virus specific CTL in BALB/c mice.

Of plants and pikas: evidence for a climate-mediated decline in forage and cache quality

Background: Animals that hoard food to mediate seasonal deficits in resource availability might be particularly vulnerable to climate-mediated reductions in the quality and accessibility of food during the caching season. Central-place foragers might be additionally impacted by climatic constraints on their already restricted foraging range. Aims: We sought evidence for these patterns in a study of the American pika (Ochotona princeps), a territorial, central-place forager sensitive to climate. Methods: Pika food caches and available forage were re-sampled using historical methods at two long-term study sites, to quantify changes over two decades. Taxa that changed in availability or use were analysed for primary and secondary metabolites. Results: Both sites trended towards warmer summers, and snowmelt trended earlier at the lower latitude site. Graminoid cover increased at each site, and caching trends appeared to reflect available forage rather than primary metabolites. Pikas at the lower latitude site preferred species higher in secondary metabolites, known to provide higher-nutrient winter forage. However, caching of lower-nutrient graminoids increased in proportion with graminoid availability at that site. Conclusions: If our results represent trends in climate, cache quality and available forage, we predict that pikas at the lower latitude site will soon face nutritional deficiencies.

Structure and assembly of Sesbania mosaic virus

Sesbania mosaic virus (SeMV) is a ss-RNA (4149 nt) plant sobemovirus isolated from farmer's field around Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh. The viral capsid (30 nm diameter) consists of 180 copies of protein subunits (MW 29 kDa) organized with icosahedral symmetry. In order to understand the mechanism of assembly of SeMV, a large number of deletion and substitution mutants of the coat protein (CP) were constructed. Recombinant SeMV CP (rCP) as well as the N-terminal rCP deletion mutant Delta N22 were found to assemble in E. coli into virus-like particles (VLPs). Delta N36 and Delta N65 mostly formed smaller particles consisting of 60 protein subunits. Although particlem assembly was not affected due to the substitution of aspartates (D14 and D149) that coordinate calcium ions by asparagines, the stability of the resulting capsids was drastically reduced. Deletion of residues forming a characteristic beta-annulus at the icosahedral 3-folds did not affect the assembly of VLPs. Mutation of a single tryptophan, which occurs near the icosahedral fivefold axis to glutamate or lysine, resulted in the disruption of the capsid leading to soluble dimers that resembled the quasi-dimer structure of the native virus. Replacement of positively charged residues in the amino terminal segment of CP resulted in the formation of empty shells. Based on these observations, a plausible mechanism of assembly is proposed.

Characterization and immune response of a protein produced by a cDNA clone of foot and mouth disease virus, type Asia 1 63/72

A 0.9 kb double stranded cDNA of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) Type Asia 1, 63/72 was cloned in an expression vector, pUR222. A protein of 38 kd was produced by the clone which reacted with the antibodies raised against the virus. A 20 kd protein which may be derived from the 38 kd protein contained the antigenic epitopes of the protein VP1 of the virus. Injection of 10-20 micrograms of the partially purified 38 and 20 kd proteins or a lysate of cells containing 240 micrograms of the proteins elicited high titers of FMDV specific antibodies in guinea pigs and cattle respectively. Also, at these concentrations, the proteins protected 5 of 8 guinea pigs and 3 of 8 cattle when challenged with a virulent virus.

Anti-malarial herbal remedies of northeast India, Assam: An ethnobotanical survey

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Malaria is a serious public health problem in the north-eastern region of India including Assam, in view of development of chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. There is need for alternative and affordable therapy. Aim of the study: This study was conducted to document indigenous knowledge, usage customs and practices of medicinal plant species traditionally used by the residents of Sonitpur district of Tezpur, Assam to treat malaria and its associated symptoms. Materials and methods:A total of 50 randomly selected sampling represented by male (38.76%) and female respondents (12.24%) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results: The present ethno-botanical survey revealed 22 species of plants belonging to 17 botanical families were reported to be used exclusively in this region for the treatment of malaria. Verbenaceae (three species), Menispermaceae (two species), and Acanthaceae (two species) botanical families represented the species that are most commonly cited in this survey work and the detailed use of plants has been collected and described. Conclusions: The most serious threat to the existing knowledge and practice on traditional medicinal plants included cultural change, particularly the influence of modernization and lack of interests shown by the next younger generations were the main problems reported by the informants during the field survey. Hence, the proper documentation of traditional medicinal plants being used as anti-malarial agents and related indigenous knowledge held by the tribal community is an important approach to control the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria reported in this survey work. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

An adaptive cascade compensator for a wide class of stable minimum or nonminimum phase plants through time moment estimation

Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) of a wide repertoire of stable Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems is addressed here. Even an upper bound on the order of the finite-dimensional system is unavailable. Further, the unknown plant is permitted to have both minimum phase and nonminimum phase zeros. Model following with reference to a completely specified reference model excited by a class of piecewise continuous bounded signals is the goal. The problem is approached by taking recourse to the time moments representation of an LTI system. The treatment here is confined to Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) systems. The adaptive controller is built upon an on-line scheme for time moment estimation of a system given no more than its input and output. As a first step, a cascade compensator is devised. The primary contribution lies in developing a unified framework to eventually address with more finesse the problem of adaptive control of a large family of plants allowed to be minimum or nonminimum phase. Thus, the scheme presented in this paper is confined to lay the basis for more refined compensators-cascade, feedback and both-initially for SISO systems and progressively for Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) systems. Simulations are presented.

Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh, India

Background: The present paper documents the uses of plants in traditional herbal medicine for human and veterinary ailments, and those used for dietary supplements, religious purpose, local beverage, and plants used to poison fish and wild animals. Traditional botanical medicine is the primary mode of healthcare for most of the rural population in Arunachal Pradesh. Materials and methods: Field research was conducted between April 2006 and March 2009 with randomly selected 124 key informants using semi-structured questionnaire. The data obtained was analyzed through informant consensus factor (F(IC)) to determine the homogeneity of informant's knowledge on medicinal plants. Results: We documented 50 plants species belonging to 29 families used for treating 22 human and 4 veterinary ailments. Of the medicinal plants reported, the most common growth form was herbs (40%) followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers. Leaves were most frequently used plant parts. The consensus analysis revealed that the dermatological ailments have the highest F(IC) (0.56) and the gastro-intestinal diseases have F(IC) (0.43). F(IC) values indicated that there was high agreement in the use of plants in dermatological and gastro-intestinal ailments category among the users. Gymnocladus assamicus is a critically rare and endangered species used as disinfectant for cleaning wounds and parasites like leeches and lice on livestocks. Two plant species (Illicium griffithii and Rubia cordifolia) are commonly used for traditional dyeing of clothes and food items. Some of the edible plants recorded in this study were known for their treatment against high blood pressure (Clerodendron colebrookianum), diabetes mellitus (Momordica charantia), and intestinal parasitic worms like round and tape worms (Lindera neesiana, Solanum etiopicum, and Solanum indicum). The Monpas of Arunachal Pradesh have traditionally been using Daphne papyracea for preparing hand-made paper for painting and writing religious scripts in Buddhist monasteries. Three plant species (Derris scandens, Aesculus assamica, and Polygonum hydropiper) were frequently used to poison fish during the month of June-July every year and the underground tuber of Aconitum ferrox is widely used in arrow poisoning to kill ferocious animals like bear, wild pigs, gaur and deer. The most frequently cited plant species; Buddleja asiatica and Hedyotis scandens were used as common growth supplements during the preparation of fermentation starter cultures. Conclusion: The traditional pharmacopoeia of the Monpa ethnic group incorporates a myriad of diverse botanical flora. Traditional knowledge of the remedies is passed down through oral traditions without any written document. This traditional knowledge is however, currently threatened mainly due to acculturation and deforestation due to continuing traditional shifting cultivation. This study reveals that the rural populations in Arunachal Pradesh have a rich knowledge of forest-based natural resources and consumption of wild edible plants is still an integral part of their socio-cultural life. Findings of this documentation study can be used as an ethnopharmacological basis for selecting plants for future phytochemical and pharmaceutical studies.

Herbal medicines used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus in Arunachal Himalaya, northeast, India

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Medicinal plants have played an important role in treating and preventing a variety of diseases throughout the world. Khampti tribal people living in the far-flung Lohit district of the Eastern Arunachal Himalaya, India still depend on medicinal plants and most of them have a general knowledge of medicinal plants which are used for treating a variety of ailments. This survey was undertaken in Lohit district in order to inventory the medicinal plants used in folk medicine to treat diabetes mellitus. Materials and methods: Field investigations were conducted in seventeen remote villages of Lohit district starting from April 2002 to May 2004 through interviews among 251 key informants who were selected randomly during our household survey. To elucidate community domains and determine differences in indigenous traditional knowledge of medicinal plants with anti-diabetic efficacy, we repeated our field survey starting from April 2008 to May 2010 with one hundred traditional healers locally called as ``Chau ya'' in Khampti of Lohit district. ``Chau ya'' traditional healers who know and use medicinal plants for treating diabetes mellitus were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results: This study reports an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh reputed for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Forty-six plant species were identified in the study area to treat diabetes mellitus by the Khamptis ``Chau ya'' traditional healers. Comparative published literature survey analysis of this study with other ethnobotanical surveys of plants used traditionally in treating diabetes mellitus suggests that eleven plant species make claims of new reports on antidiabetic efficacy. These plant species are Begonia roxburghii, Calamus tenuis, Callicarpa arborea, Cuscuta reflexa, Dillenia indica, Diplazium esculentum, Lectuca gracilis, Millingtonia hortensis, Oxalis griffithii, Saccharum spontaneum, and Solanum viarum. Some of the plants reported in this study have an antidiabetic effect on rodent models but none have sufficient clinical evidence of effectiveness. Conclusions: The wide variety of medicinal plants that are used to treat diabetes mellitus in this area supports the importance of plants in the primary healthcare system of the rural people of Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh. The finding of new plant uses in the current study reveals the importance of the documentation of such ethnobotanical knowledge. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Coral diseases are major contributors to coral mortality in Shingle Island, Gulf of Mannar, southeastern India

The present study reports coral mortality, driven primarily by coral diseases, around Shingle Island, Gulf of Mannar (GOM), Indian Ocean. In total, 2910 colonies were permanently monitored to assess the incidence of coral diseases and consequent mortality for 2 yr. Four types of lesions consistent with white band disease (WBD), black disease (BD), white plaque disease (WPD), and pink spot disease (PSD) were recorded from 4 coral genera: Montipora, Pocillopora, Acropora, and Porites. Porites were affected by 2 disease types, while the other 3 genera were affected by only 1 disease type. Overall disease prevalence increased from 8% (n = 233 colonies) to 41.9% (n = 1219) over the 2 yr study period. BD caused an unprecedented 100% mortality in Pocillopora, followed by 20.4 and 13.1% mortality from WBD in Montipora and Acropora, respectively. Mean disease progression rates of 0.8 +/- 1.0 and 0.6 +/- 0.5 cm mo(-1) over live coral colonies were observed for BD and WBD. Significant correlations between temperature and disease progression were observed for BD (r = 0.86, R-2 = 0.75, p < 0.001) and WBD (R-2 = 0.76, p < 0.001). This study revealed the increasing trend of disease prevalence and progression of disease over live coral in a relatively limited study area; further study should investigate the status of the entire coral reef in the GOM and the role of diseases in reef dynamics.

Cultural-Evolution of Ecological Prudence

Animals often behave in a profligate fashion and decimate the populations of plants and animals they depend upon. They may, however, evolve prudent behaviour under special conditions, namely when such prudence greatly enhances the success of populations that are not too prone to invasions by profligate individuals. Cultural evolution in human societies can also lead to the adoption of prudent practices under similar conditions. These are more likely to be realized in stable environments in which the human populations tend to grow close to the carrying capacity, when the human groups are closed, and when the technology is stagnant. These conditions probably prevailed in the hunter—gatherer societies of the tropics and subtropics, and led to the adoption of a number of socially imposed restraints on the use of plant and animal resources. Such practices were rationalized in the form of Nature-worship. The Indian caste society became so organized as to fulfill these conditions, and gave rise to two religions, Buddhism and Jainism, which emphasize compassion towards all forms of life. The pastoral nomads of the middle east, on the other hand, lived in an environment which militated against prudence, and these societies gave rise to religions like Christianity, which declared war on nature. As the ruling elite and state have grown in power, they have tried to wrest control of natural resources from the local communities. This has sometimes resulted in conservation and prudent use under guidance from the state, but has often led to conflicts with local populations to the detriment of prudent behaviour. Modern technological progress has also often removed the need for conservation, as when availability of coal permitted the deforestation of England. While modern scientific understanding has led to a better appreciation of the need for prudence, the prevailing social and economic conditions often militate against any implementation of the understanding, as is seen from the history of whaling. However, the imperative for survival of the poor from the Third-World countries may finally bring about conditions in which ecological prudence may once again come to dominate human cultures as it might once have done with stable societies of hunter—gatherers.

Climate response to physiological forcing of carbon dioxide simulated by the coupled Community Atmosphere Model (CAM3.1) and Community Land Model (CLM3.0)

Increasing concentrations of atmospheric CO2 decrease stomatal conductance of plants and thus suppress canopy transpiration. The climate response to this CO2-physiological forcing is investigated using the Community Atmosphere Model version 3.1 coupled to Community Land Model version 3.0. In response to the physiological effect of doubling CO2, simulations show a decrease in canopy transpiration of 8%, a mean warming of 0.1K over the land surface, and negligible changes in the hydrological cycle. These climate responses are much smaller than what were found in previous modeling studies. This is largely a result of unrealistic partitioning of evapotranspiration in our model control simulation with a greatly underestimated contribution from canopy transpiration and overestimated contributions from canopy and soil evaporation. This study highlights the importance of a realistic simulation of the hydrological cycle, especially the individual components of evapotranspiration, in reducing the uncertainty in our estimation of climatic response to CO2-physiological forcing. Citation: Cao, L., G. Bala, K. Caldeira, R. Nemani, and G.Ban-Weiss (2009), Climate response to physiological forcing of carbon dioxide simulated by the coupled Community Atmosphere Model (CAM3.1) and Community Land Model (CLM3.0).

Water stress induced alterations in ornithine aminotransferase of ragi (Eleusine coracana): Protection by proline against heat inactivation and denaturation by urea and guanidinium chloride

Water stress resulted in a specific response leading to a large and significant increase (80-fold) in free proline content of ragi (Eleusine coracana) leaves and seedlings. L-Proline protected ornithine aminotransferase, an enzyme in the pathway for proline biosynthesis, isolated from normal and stressed ragi leaves against heat inactivation and denaturation by urea and guanidinium chloride. The protection of the stressed enzyme by L-proline was much more complete than that of the enzyme isolated from normal leaves. While L-ornithine, one of the substrates, protected the stressed enzyme against inactivation, it enhanced the rate of inactivation of the normal enzyme. α-Ketoglutarate protected both the normal and stressed enzyme against inactivation and denaturation. These results support the suggestion that ornithine aminotransferase has undergone a structural alteration during water stress. In view of the causal relationship between elevated temperature and water stress of plants under natural conditions, the protection afforded by proline against inactivation and denaturation of the enzyme from stressed leaves assumes significance. These results provide an explanation for a possible functional importance of proline accumulation during water stress.