The protein components of elastoidin

Not all elastoidin samples from different species of sharks show a high content of tryptophan in contrast to one specimen from an unidentified species examined in our earlier study. There may be considerable species-dependent variation in tryptophan content and analytical artefacts may have occurred. Available analyses for tyrosine in different specimens of fibres also suggest the possibility that the variation in tyrosine content is also species-dependent. Elastoidin, from Galeoscerdo cuveir (Tiger Shark) and another unidentified species, on treatment with formic acid yielded three fractions A,B and C. On the basis of analytical data it appears that specimens of elastoidin containing no (or little) tryptophan may yield fraction B through the solubilization of fraction A by formic acid. C fractions from two specimens of fibres were collagenous in nature. C fractions have been further purified in this study by charcoal treatment which removes a tyrosine-rich contaminant, to yield collagens with only approx. 2–4 residues of tyrosine per assumed mol. wt. of 360000. In the collagen from the unidentified species glucose and galactose were present in the ratio of 2:5; some glucosamine was also present.

The management of large mammals in relation to male strategies and conflict with people

Many large mammals such as elephant, rhino and tiger often come into conflict with people by destroying agricultural crops and even killing people, thus providing a deterrent to conservation efforts. The males of these polygynous species have a greater variance in reproductive success than females, leading to selection pressures favouring a ‘high risk-high gain’ strategy for promoting reproductive success. This brings them into greater conflict with people. For instance, adult male elephants are far more prone than a member of a female-led family herd to raid agricultural crops and to kill people. In polygynous species, the removal of a certain proportion of ‘surplus’ adult males is not likely to affect the fertility and growth rate of the population. Hence, this could be a management tool which would effectively reduce animal-human conflict, and at the same time maintain the viability of the population. Selective removal of males would result in a skewed sex ratio. This would reduce the ‘effective population size’ (as opposed to the total population or census number), increase the rate of genetic drift and, in small populations, lead to inbreeding depression. Plans for managing destructive mammals through the culling of males will have to ensure that the appropriate minimum size in the populations is being maintained.

Testing the efficacy of a chilli-tobacco rope fence as a deterrent against crop-raiding elephants

Chilli-based repellents have shown promise as deterrents against crop-raiding elephants in Africa. We experimented with ropes coated with chilli-based repellent as a cheap alternative to existing elephant cropraid deterrent methods in India. Three locations (Buxa Tiger Reserve, Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Hosur Forest Division) representing varying rainfall regimes from high to low, and with histories of intense elephant-agriculture conflict, were selected for the experiments that were conducted over 2-3 months during the pre-harvest period of the kharif season in late 2006. Chilli and tobacco powder mixed with waste oil was applied to ropes strung around agricultural fields of 1.4-5.5 km perimeter and elephant approaches were monitored. Elephants breached the rope fences a few times at all three study sites. Female-led herds were far more deterred (practically 100% reduction) than were solitary males (c. 50%) by the chilli-tobacco rope. Efficacy of this method as a deterrent was significantly better in the low-rainfall regime relative to medium and high-rainfall regimes. The initial promising results present a case for more rigorous experimentation; these would help determine if the elephants avoiding the rope are responding physiologically to the chilli-tobacco smell or merely reacting cautiously to a novel substance in their environment.

Paleoseismological evidence of surface faulting along the northeastern Himalayan front, India: Timing, size, and spatial extent of great earthquakes

The similar to 2500 km long Himalayan arc has experienced three large to great earthquakes of M-w 7.8 to 8.4 during the past century, but none produced surface rupture. Paleoseismic studies have been conducted during the last decade to begin understanding the timing, size, rupture extent, return period, and mechanics of the faulting associated with the occurrence of large surface rupturing earthquakes along the similar to 2500 km long Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) system of India and Nepal. The previous studies have been limited to about nine sites along the western two-thirds of the HFT extending through northwest India and along the southern border of Nepal. We present here the results of paleoseismic investigations at three additional sites further to the northeast along the HFT within the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. The three sites reside between the meizoseismal areas of the 1934 Bihar-Nepal and 1950 Assam earthquakes. The two westernmost of the sites, near the village of Chalsa and near the Nameri Tiger Preserve, show that offsets during the last surface rupture event were at minimum of about 14 m and 12 m, respectively. Limits on the ages of surface rupture at Chalsa (site A) and Nameri (site B), though broad, allow the possibility that the two sites record the same great historical rupture reported in Nepal around A.D. 1100. The correlation between the two sites is supported by the observation that the large displacements as recorded at Chalsa and Nameri would most likely be associated with rupture lengths of hundreds of kilometers or more and are on the same order as reported for a surface rupture earthquake reported in Nepal around A.D. 1100. Assuming the offsets observed at Chalsa and Nameri occurred synchronously with reported offsets in Nepal, the rupture length of the event would approach 700 to 800 km. The easternmost site is located within Harmutty Tea Estate (site C) at the edges of the 1950 Assam earthquake meizoseismal area. Here the most recent event offset is relatively much smaller (<2.5 m), and radiocarbon dating shows it to have occurred after A.D. 1100 (after about A.D. 1270). The location of the site near the edge of the meizoseismal region of the 1950 Assam earthquake and the relatively lesser offset allows speculation that the displacement records the 1950 M-w 8.4 Assam earthquake. Scatter in radiocarbon ages on detrital charcoal has not resulted in a firm bracket on the timing of events observed in the trenches. Nonetheless, the observations collected here, when taken together, suggest that the largest of thrust earthquakes along the Himalayan arc have rupture lengths and displacements of similar scale to the largest that have occurred historically along the world's subduction zones.

Waiting for Gajah: an elephant mutualist's contingency plan for an endangered megafaunal disperser

Large animals are disproportionately likely to go extinct, and the effects of this on ecosystem processes are unclear. Megaherbivores (weighing over 1000kg) are thought to be particularly effective seed dispersers, yet only a few plant species solely or predominantly adapted for dispersal by megaherbivores have been identified. The reasons for this paradox may be elucidated by examining the ecology of so-called megafaunal fruiting species in Asia, where large-fruited species have been only sparsely researched. We conducted focal tree watches, camera trapping, fruit ageing trials, dung seed counts and germination trials to understand the ecology of Dillenia indica, a large-fruited species thought to be elephant-dispersed, in a tropical moist forest (Buxa Tiger Reserve, India). We find that the initial hardness of the fruit of D.indica ensures that its small (6mm) seeds will primarily be consumed and dispersed by elephants and perhaps other megaherbivores. Elephants removed 63.3% of camera trap-monitored fruits taken by frugivores. If the fruit of D.indica is not removed by a large animal, the seeds of D.indica become available to successively smaller frugivores as its fruits soften. Seeds from both hard and soft fruits are able to germinate, meaning these smaller frugivores may provide a mechanism for dispersal without megaherbivores.Synthesis. Dillenia indica's strategy for dispersal allows it to realize the benefits of dispersal by megaherbivores without becoming fully reliant on these less abundant species. This risk-spreading dispersal behaviour suggests D.indica will be able to persist even if its megafaunal disperser becomes extinct.

Distribution, Demography, and Conservation of Lion-tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) in the Anamalai Hills Landscape, Western Ghats, India

The status of the endemic and endangered lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) has not been properly assessed in several regions of the Western Ghats of southern India. We conducted a study in Parambikulam Forest Reserve in the state of Kerala to determine the distribution, demography, and status of lion-tailed macaques. We laid 5km(2) grid cells on the map of the study area (644km(2)) and made four replicated walks in each grid cell using GPS. We gathered data on lion-tailed macaque group locations, demography, and site covariates including trail length, duration of walk, proportion of evergreen forest, height of tallest trees, and human disturbance index. We also performed occupancy modeling using PRESENCE ver. 3.0. We estimated a minimum of 17 groups of macaques in these hills. Low detection and occupancy probabilities indicated a low density of lion-tailed macaques in the study area. Height of the tallest trees correlated positively whereas human disturbance and proportion of evergreen forest correlated negatively with occupancy in grid cells. We also used data from earlier studies carried out in the surrounding Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Nelliyampathy Hills to discuss the conservation status in the large Anamalai Hills Landscape. This landscape harbors an estimated population of 1108 individuals of lion-tailed macaques, which is about one third of the entire estimated wild population of this species. A conservation plan for this landscape could be used as a model for conservation in other regions of the Western Ghats.

In the elephant's seed shadow: the prospects of domestic bovids as replacement dispersers of three tropical Asian trees

As populations of the world's largest animal species decline, it is unclear how ecosystems will react to their local extirpation. Due to the unique ecological characteristics of megaherbivores such as elephants, seed dispersal is one ecosystem process that may be affected as populations of large animals are decimated. In typically disturbed South Asian ecosystems, domestic bovids (cattle, Bos primigenius, and buffalo, Bubalus bubalis) may often be the species most available to replace Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) as endozoochorous dispersers of large-fruited mammal-dispersed species. We use feeding trials, germination trials, and movement data from the tropical moist forests of Buxa Tiger Reserve (India) to examine whether domestic bovids are viable replacements for elephants in the dispersal of three largefruited species: Dillenia indica, Artocarpus chaplasha, and Careya arborea. We find that (1) once consumed, seeds are between 2.5 (C. arborea) and 26.5 (D. indica) times more likely to pass undigested into elephant dung than domestic bovid dung; and (2) seeds from elephant dung germinated as well as or better than seeds taken from bovid dung for all plant species, with D. indica seeds from elephant dung 1.5 times more likely to germinate. Furthermore, since wild elephants have less constrained movements than even free-roaming domestic bovids, we calculate that maximum dispersal by elephants is between 9.5 and 11.2 times farther than that of domestic bovids, with about 20% of elephant-dispersed seeds being moved farther than the maximum distance seeds are moved by bovids. Our findings suggest that, while bovids are able to disperse substantial numbers of seeds over moderate distances for two of the three study species, domestic bovids will be unable to routinely emulate the reliable, long-distance dispersal of seeds executed by elephants in this tropical moist forest. Thus while domestic bovids can attenuate the effects of losing elephants as dispersers, they may not be able to prevent the decline of various mammal-dispersed fruiting species in the face of overhunting, habitat fragmentation, and climate change.

Primates, Provisioning and Plants: Impacts of Human Cultural Behaviours on Primate Ecological Functions

Human provisioning of wildlife with food is a widespread global practice that occurs in multiple socio-cultural circumstances. Provisioning may indirectly alter ecosystem functioning through changes in the eco-ethology of animals, but few studies have quantified this aspect. Provisioning of primates by humans is known to impact their activity budgets, diets and ranging patterns. Primates are also keystone species in tropical forests through their role as seed dispersers; yet there is no information on how provisioning might affect primate ecological functions. The rhesus macaque is a major human-commensal species but is also an important seed disperser in the wild. In this study, we investigated the potential impacts of provisioning on the role of rhesus macaques as seed dispersers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve, India. We studied a troop of macaques which were provisioned for a part of the year and were dependent on natural resources for the rest. We observed feeding behaviour, seed handling techniques and ranging patterns of the macaques and monitored availability of wild fruits. Irrespective of fruit availability, frugivory and seed dispersal activities decreased when the macaques were provisioned. Provisioned macaques also had shortened daily ranges implying shorter dispersal distances. Finally, during provisioning periods, seeds were deposited on tarmac roads that were unconducive for germination. Provisioning promotes human-primate conflict, as commensal primates are often involved in aggressive encounters with humans over resources, leading to negative consequences for both parties involved. Preventing or curbing provisioning is not an easy task as feeding wild animals is a socio-cultural tradition across much of South and South-East Asia, including India. We recommend the initiation of literacy programmes that educate lay citizens about the ill-effects of provisioning and strongly caution them against the practice.

Fruit Trait Preference in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) and its Implications for Seed Dispersal

Primates constitute 25-40 % of the frugivore biomass of tropical forests. Primate fruit preference, as a determinant of seed dispersal, can therefore have a significant impact on these ecosystems. Although the traits of fruits included in primate diets have been described, fruit trait preference has been less studied with respect to fruit availability. We examined fruit trait preference and its implications for seed dispersal in the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), a dietarily flexible species and important seed disperser, at the Buxa Tiger Reserve, India. Over a year, we monitored the phenology of selected trees in the study area, observed the feeding behavior of rhesus macaques using scans and focal animal sampling, and documented morphological traits of the fruits/seeds consumed. Using generalized linear modeling, we found that the kind of edible tissue was the chief determinant of fruit consumption, with M. mulatta feeding primarily on fruits with juicy-soft pulp and acting as seed predators for those with no discernible pulp. Overall, the preferred traits were external covers that could be easily pierced by a fingernail, medium to large seeds, true stone-like seeds, and juicy-soft edible tissue, thereby implying that fruit taxa with these traits had a higher probability of being dispersed. Macaques were more selective during the high fruit availability period than the low fruit availability period, preferentially feeding on soft-skinned fruits with juicy-soft pulp. We suggest that further studies be conducted across habitats and time to understand the consistency of interactions between primates and fruits with specific traits to determine the degree of selective pressure (if any) that is exerted by primates on fruit traits.