Relook into the historical progress and philosophy of Indian space exploration

A study of the history and philosophy of the contribution of India towards the exploration of space since antiquity provides interesting insights. The contributions are described during the three periods namely: (1) the ten millenniums from 10,000 BC with a twilight period up to 900 AD; (2) the ten centuries from 900 AD to 1900 AD; and (3) the ten decades from 1900 AD to 2000 AD; called mythological, medieval, and modern respectively. Some important events during the above periods provide a reference view of the progress. The Vedas during the mythological period and the Siddhantas during the medieval periods, which are based on astronomical observations, indicate that the Indian contribution preceded other cultures. But most Western historians ignore this fact time and again in spite of many proofs provided to the contrary. This chapter also shows that Indians had the proper scientific attitude of developing any physical theory through the triplet of mind, model, and measurements. It is this same triplet that forms the basis of the present day well known Kalman filter technique. Up to about 1500 BC the Indian contribution was leading but during foreign invasion and occupation it lagged and has been improving only after independence.

Natural history and behaviour of the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata (Hymenoptera: Vespidae): a comparison of the two sexes

We report the natural history and behaviour of the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata with a special reference to the males. We found that just as nests of this species are found throughout the year, so are the males. Females spend all their life in their nests but males stay in their natal nests only for 1-12 days and leave to lead a nomadic life. Males maintained in the laboratory can live for up to 140 days. Like all eusocial hymenopteran males, R. marginata males also do not perform any colony maintenance activities. We found that males did not forage or feed larvae. Compared with females, males showed fewer dominance and subordinate behaviours and being solicited behaviour and more feeding self and soliciting behaviours. By comparing males with young females, we found similar differences, except that the males showed similar rates of feeding self and higher rates of subordinate behaviour.

The biology and pathogenesis of hepatitis viruses

Viral hepatitis is caused mainly by infection with one of the five hepatitis viruses, which use the liver as their primary site of replication. Each of these, known as hepatitis A through E viruses (HAV to HEV), belong to different virus families, have unique morphology, genomic organization and replication strategy. These viruses cause similar clinical manifestations during the acute phase of infection but vary in their ability to cause chronic infection. While HAV and HEV cause only acute disease with no chronic sequelae, HBV, HCV and HDV cause varying degrees of chronicity and liver injury, which can progress to cirrhosis and liver cancers. Though specific serological tests are available for the known hepatitis viruses, nearly 20% of all hepatitis cases show no markers. Antiviral therapy is also recommended for some hepatitis viruses and a preventive vaccine is available only for hepatitis B. More research and public awareness programmes are needed to control the disease. This review will provide an overview of the hepatitis viruses and the disease they cause.

Mathematics, nature and cryptography: Insights from philosophy of information

One influential image that is popular among scientists is the view that mathematics is the language of nature. The present article discusses another possible way to approach the relation between mathematics and nature, which is by using the idea of information and the conceptual vocabulary of cryptography. This approach allows us to understand the possibility that secrets of nature need not be written in mathematics and yet mathematics is necessary as a cryptographic key to unlock these secrets. Various advantages of such a view are described in this article.

Phylogenetics and biogeography of a spectacular Old World radiation of butterflies: the subtribe Mycalesina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrini)

Background: Butterflies of the subtribe Mycalesina (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) are important model organisms in ecology and evolution. This group has radiated spectacularly in the Old World tropics and presents an exciting opportunity to better understand processes of invertebrate rapid radiations. However, the generic-level taxonomy of the subtribe has been in a constant state of flux, and relationships among genera are unknown. There are six currently recognized genera in the group. Mycalesis, Lohora and Nirvanopsis are found in the Oriental region, the first of which is the most speciose genus among mycalesines, and extends into the Australasian region. Hallelesis and Bicyclus are found in mainland Africa, while Heteropsis is primarily Madagascan, with a few species in Africa. We infer the phylogeny of the group with data from three genes (total of 3139 bp) and use these data to reconstruct events in the biogeographic history of the group.,Results: The results indicate that the group Mycalesina radiated rapidly around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. Basal relationships are unresolved, but we recover six well-supported clades. Some species of Mycalesis are nested within a primarily Madagascan clade of Heteropsis,while Nirvanopsis is nested within Lohora. The phylogeny suggests that the group had its origin either in Asia or Africa, and diversified through dispersals between the two regions, during the late Oligocene and early Miocene. The current dataset tentatively suggests that the Madagascan fauna comprises two independent radiations. The Australasian radiation shares a common ancestor derived from Asia. We discuss factors that are likely to have played a key role in the diversification of the group. Conclusions: We propose a significantly revised classification scheme for Mycalesina. We conclude that the group originated and radiated from an ancestor that was found either in Asia or Africa, with dispersals between the two regions and to Australasia. Our phylogeny paves the way for further comparative studies on this group that will help us understand the processes underlying diversification in rapid radiations of invertebrates.

A touch of history and a peep into the future of the lipid-quinone known as coenzyme Q and ubiquinone

Coenzyme Q (ubiquinone), a fully substituted benzoquinone with polyprenyl side chain, participates in many cellular redox activities. Paradoxically it was discovered only in 1957, albeit being ubiquitous. It required a person, F. L. Crane, a place, Enzyme Institute, Madison, USA, and a time when D. E. Green was directing vigorous research on mitochondria. Located at the transition of 2-electron flavoproteins and 1-electron cytochrome carriers, it facilitates electron transfer through the elegant Q-cycle in mitochondria to reduce O-2 to H2O, and to H2O2, now a significant signal-transducing agent, as a minor activity in shunt pathway (animals) and alternative oxidase (plants). The ability to form Q-radical by losing an electron and a proton was ingeniously used by Mitchell to explain the formation of the proton gradient, considered the core of energy transduction, and also in acidification in vacuoles. Known to be a mobile membrane constituent (microsomes, plasma membrane and Golgi apparatus), allowing it to reach multiple sites, coenzyme Q is expected to have other activities. Coenzyme Q protects circulating lipoproteins being a better lipid antioxidant than even vitamin E. Binding to proteins such as QPS, QPN, QPC and uncoupling protein in mitochondria, QA and QB in the reaction centre in R. sphaeroides, and disulfide bond-forming protein in E. coli (possibly also in Golgi), coenzyme Q acquires selective functions. A characteristic of orally dosed coenzyme Q is its exclusive absorption into the liver, but not the other tissues. This enrichment of Q is accompanied by significant decrease of blood pressure and of serum cholesterol. Inhibition of formation of mevalonate, the common precursor in the branched isoprene pathway, by the minor product, coenzyme Q, decreases the major product, cholesterol. Relaxation of contracted arterial smooth muscle by a side-chain truncated product of coenzyme Q explains its effect of decreasing blood pressure. Extensive clinical studies carried out on oral supplements of coenzyine Q, initially by K. Folkers and Y. Yamamura and followed many others, revealed a large number of beneficial effects, significantly in cardiovascular diseases. Such a variety of effects by this lipid quinone cannot depend on redox activity alone. The fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) that bear structural relationship with coenzyme Q are known to be active in their polar forms. A vignette of modified forms of coenzyme Q taking active role in its multiple effects is emerging.