Friction and wear behaviour of continuous fibre as cast Kevlar-phenolic resin composite

A compression moulded Kevlar-phenolic resin composite consisting of 30 wt% continuous fibres was slid against a steel disc such that the fibre axis was normal to the sliding plane. The sliding experiments were conducted in a normal pressure range of 0.47–4.27 MPa and at a sliding speed of 0.5 ms–1. The initial sliding interaction is abrasive. With further sliding, as patches of polymer transfer film develop on the polymer pin and counterface, the interaction becomes adhesive and steady-state friction is established. The wear resistance of the polymer was found to be related to the stability of this film.

Effect of sliding speed on friction and wear of uni-directional aramid fibre-phenolic resin composite

A previous study on the tribological performance of a compression-moulded aramid fibre-phenolic resin composite, containing 30% continuous fibre, showed that this composite provides a reasonable combination of the friction coefficient and wear rate to be used as a friction component, such as a brake shoe. In the present work, the effect of sliding speed on the friction and wear behaviour of this composite has been investigated. The sliding experiments were conducted in a speed range of 0.1-6 m s(-1) at two normal pressure levels of 1.0 and 4.9 MPa. The coefficient of friction was found to be stable over a wide range of sliding speeds and normal pressures. The wear of the composite was found to be insensitive to changes in the speed in the higher speed range. The results have been supplemented with scanning electron micrographs to help understand possible friction and wear mechanisms.

Bio-Composite Membrane Electrolytes for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

A new class of bio-composite polymer electrolyte membranes comprising chitosan (CS) and certain biomolecules in particular, plant hormones such as 3-indole acetic acid (IAA), 4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid (CAA) and 1-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) are explored to realize proton-conducting bio-composite membranes for application in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). The sorption capability, proton conductivity and ion-exchange capacity of the membranes are characterized in conjunction with their thermal and mechanical behaviour. A novel approach to measure the permeability of the membranes to both water and methanol is also reported, employing NMR imaging and volume localized NMR spectroscopy, using a two compartment permeability cell. A DMFC using CS-IAA composite membrane, operating with 2M aqueous methanol and air at 70 degrees C delivers a peak power density of 25 mW/cm(2) at a load current density of 150 mA/cm(2). The study opens up the use of bio-compatible membranes in polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cells. (C) 2011 The Electrochemical Society. [DOI: 10.1149/2.030111jes] All rights reserved.

Effect of polymer coating on the thermal decomposition of composite propellant oxidizers

Ammonium perchlorate (AP) has been coated with polystyrene (PS), cellulose acetate (CA), Novolak resin and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) by a solvent/nonsolvent method which makes use of the coacervation principle. The effect of polymer coating on AP decomposition has been studied using thermogravimetry (TG) and differential thermal analysis (DTA). Polymer coating results in the desensitization of AP decomposition. The observed effect has been attributed to the thermophysical and thermochemical properties of the polymer used for coating. The effect of polystyrene coating on thermal decomposition of aluminium perchlorate trihydrazinate and ammonium nitrate as well as on the combustion of AP-CTPB composite propellants has been studied.

The UPAL process: a direct method of preparing cast aluminium alloy-graphite particle composites

A direct method of preparing cast aluminium alloy-graphite particle composites using uncoated graphite particles is reported. The method consists of introducing and dispersing uncoated but suitably pretreated graphite particles in aluminium alloy melts, and casting the resulting composite melts in suitable permanent moulds. The optical pretreatment required for the dispersion of the uncoated graphite particles in aluminium alloy melts consists of heating the graphite particles to 400° C in air for 1 h just prior to their dispersion in the melts. The effects of alloying elements such as Si, Cu and Mg on the dispersability of pretreated graphite in molten aluminium have also been reported. It was found that additions of about 0.5% Mg or 5% Si significantly improve the dispersability of graphite particles in aluminium alloy melts as indicated by the high recoveries of graphite in the castings of these composites. It was also possible to disperse upto 3% graphite in LM 13 alloy melts and retain the graphite particles in a well distributed fashion in the castings using the pre-heat-treated graphite particles. The observations in this study have been related to the information presently available on wetting between graphite and molten aluminium in the presence of different elements and our own thermogravimetric analysis studies on graphite particles. Physical and mechanical properties of LM 13-3% graphite composite made using pre-heat-treated graphite powder, were found to be adequate for many applications, including pistons which have been successfully used in internal combustion engines.

Towards stress freezing in birefringent orthotropic composite models

Birefringent composite models are fabricated using epoxy resin reinforced with unidirectionally oriented glass fibers. The mechanical and photoelastic properties of the material at room temperature are determined. To explore the possibility of application of stress-freezing technique to birefringent composite models, the behavior and properties of this material are studied at elevated temperature (at stress-freezing temperature of the resin). The properties of the material at room and at elevated temperatures are reported. The feasibility of stress freezing glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy composites with low-fiber-volume fraction is discussed.

Novel organic-inorganic composite polymer-electrolyte membranes for DMFCs

Organic-inorganic composite membranes comprising Nation with inorganic materials such as silica, mesoporous zirconium phosphate (MZP) and mesoporous titanium phosphate (MTP) are fabricated and evaluated as proton-exchange-membrane electrolytes for direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). For Nation-silica composite membrane, silica is impregnated into Nation matrix as a sol by a novel water hydrolysis process precluding the external use of an acid. Instead, the acidic nature of Nation facilitates in situ polymerization reaction with Nation leading to a uniform composite membrane. The rapid hydrolysis and polymerization reaction while preparing zirconia and titania sols leads to uncontrolled thickness and volume reduction in the composite membranes, and hence is not conducive for casting membranes. Nafion-MZP and Nafion-MTP composite membranes are prepared by mixing pre-formed porous MZP and MTP with Nation matrix. MZP and MTP are synthesised by co-assembly of a tri-block co-polymer, namely pluronic-F127, as a structure-directing agent, and a mixture of zirconium butoxide/titanium isopropoxide and phosphorous trichloride as inorganic precursors. Methanol release kinetics is studied by volume-localized NMR spectroscopy (employing ``point resolved spectroscopy'', PRESS), the results clearly demonstrating that the incorporation of inorganic fillers in Nation retards the methanol release kinetics under osmotic drag. Appreciable proton conductivity with reduced methanol permeability across the composite membranes leads to improved performance of DMFCs in relation to commercially available Nafion-117 membrane.

Stability Analysis of Composite Skew Plates Using a Dynamic Method

Stability analysis is carried out considering free lateral vibrations of simply supported composite skew plates that are subjected to both direct and shear in-plane forces. An oblique stress component representation is used, consistent with the skew-geometry of the plate. A double series, expressed in Chebyshev polynomials, is used here as the assumed deflection surface and Ritz method of solution is employed. Numerical results for different combinations of side ratios, skew angle, and in-plane loadings that act individually or in combination are obtained. In this method, the in-plane load parameter is varied until the fundamental frequency goes to zero. The value of the in-plane load then corresponds to a critical buckling load. Plots of frequency parameter versus in-plane loading are given for a few typical cases. Details of crossings and quasi degeneracies of these curves are presented.

On higher order shear deformation theory of laminated composite panels

In this paper we examine the suitability of higher order shear deformation theory based on cubic inplane displacements and parabolic normal displacements, for stress analysis of laminated composite plates including the interlaminar stresses. An exact solution of a symmetrical four layered infinite strip under static loading has been worked out and the results obtained by the present theory are compared with the exact solution. The present theory provides very good estimates of the deflections, and the inplane stresses and strains. Nevertheless, direct estimates of strains and stresses do not display the required interlaminar stress continuity and strain discontinuity across the interlaminar surface. On the other hand, ‘statically equivalent stresses and strains’ do display the required interlaminar stress continuity and strain discontinuity and agree very closely with the exact solution.

Evaluation of kissing bond in composite adhesive lap joints using digital image correlation: Preliminary studies

The assembly of aerospace and automotive structures in recent years is increasingly carried out using adhesives. Adhesive joints have advantages of uniform stress distribution and less stress concentration in the bonded region. Nevertheless, they may suffer due to the presence of defects in bond line and at the interface or due to improper curing process. While defects like voids, cracks and delaminations present in the adhesive bond line may be detected using different NDE methods, interfacial defects in the form of kissing bond may go undetected. Attempts using advanced ultrasonic methods like nonlinear ultrasound and guided wave inspection to detect kissing bond have met with limited success stressing the need for alternate methods. This paper concerns the preliminary studies carried out on detectability of dry contact kissing bonds in adhesive joints using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique. In this attempt, adhesive joint samples containing varied area of kissing bond were prepared using the glass fiber reinforced composite (GFRP) as substrates and epoxy resin as the adhesive layer joining them. The samples were also subjected to conventional and high power ultrasonic inspection. Further, these samples were loaded till failure to determine the bond strength during which digital images were recorded and analyzed using the DIC method. This noncontact method could indicate the existence of kissing bonds at less than 50% failure load. Finite element studies carried out showed a similar trend. Results obtained from these preliminary studies are encouraging and further tests need to be done on a larger set of samples to study experimental uncertainties and scatter associated with the method. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

On the Utility of Microscopy and C-Scan Techniques in the Study of Defects Arising From Resin Infusion Process and a Study on the Influence of Voids on the Impact Behavior of CFRP Composites

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic composites were fabricated through vacuum resin infusion technology by adopting two different processing conditions, viz., vacuum only in the first and vacuum plus external pressure in the next, in order to generate two levels of void-bearing samples. They were relatively graded as higher and lower void-bearing ones, respectively. Microscopy and C-scan techniques were utilized to describe the presence of voids arising from the two different processing parameters. Further, to determine the influence of voids on impact behavior, the fabricated +45 degrees/90 degrees/-45 degrees composite samples were subjected to low velocity impacts. The tests show impact properties like peak load and energy to peak load registering higher values for the lower void-bearing case where as the total energy, energy for propagation and ductility indexes were higher for the higher void-bearing ones. Fractographic analysis showed that higher void-bearing samples display lower number of separation of layers in the laminate. These and other results are described and discussed in this report.

Effect of solvent; enhancing the wettability and engineering the porous structure of a calcium phosphate/agarose composite for drug delivery

Tissue engineering deals with the regeneration of tissues for bone repair, wound healing, drug delivery, etc., and a highly porous 3D artificial scaffold is required to accommodate the cells and direct their growth. We prepared 3D porous calcium phosphate ((hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium phosphate)/agarose, (HAp/beta-TCP)/agarose) composite scaffolds by sol-gel technique with water (WBS) and ethanol (EBS) as solvents. The crystalline phases of HAp and beta-TCP in the scaffolds were confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The EBS had reduced crystallinity and crystallite size compared to WBS. WBS and EBS revealed interconnected pores of 1 mu m and 100 nm, respectively. The swelling ratio was higher for EBS in water and phosphate buffered saline (PBS). An in vitro drug loading/release experiment was carried out on the scaffolds using gentamicin sulphate (GS) and amoxicillin (AMX). We observed initial burst release followed by sustained release from WBS and EBS. In addition, GS showed more extended release than AMX from both the scaffolds. GS and AMX loaded scaffolds showed greater efficacy against Pseudomonas than Bacillus species. WBS exhibited enhanced mechanical properties, wettability, drug loading and haemocompatibility compared to EBS. In vitro cell studies showed that over the scaffolds, MC3T3 cells attached and proliferated and there was a significant increase in live MC3T3 cells. Both scaffolds supported MC3T3 proliferation and mineralization in the absence of osteogenic differentiation supplements in media which proves the scaffolds are osteoconducive. Microporous scaffolds (WBS) could assist the bone in-growth, whereas the presence of nanopores (EBS) could enhance the degradation process. Hence, WBS and EBS could be used as scaffolds for tissue engineering and drug delivery. This is a cost effective technique to produce scaffolds of degradable 3D ceramic-polymer composites.

Post-failure Analysis and Fractography of In-plane Tension-Tested Tufted Carbon Fabric-Reinforced Epoxy Composite Laminates

Tufted and plain unidirectional carbon fabric-reinforced epoxy composite laminates were fabricated by vacuum-enhanced resin infusion technology and subjected to in-plane tensile tests with a view to study the changes in mechanical properties and failure responses. Owing to the presence of tufts in the laminates, both the tensile strength and modulus decrease by similar to 38 and similar to 20%, respectively, vis-A -vis the values recorded for plain composites. The fracture features point to the fact that though both the composites fail in brittle manner, they, however, exhibit differing fiber pull out lengths. Further, it was noticed that for the tufted ones, crack originates in the vicinity of tuft thread, spreads through the composite in a brittle manner, and results in a display of shorter fiber pull out lengths. These observations and other results are discussed in this paper.

Ultrasound-modulated optical tomography: direct recovery of elasticity distribution from experimentally measured intensity autocorrelation

Based on an ultrasound-modulated optical tomography experiment, a direct, quantitative recovery of Young's modulus (E) is achieved from the modulation depth (M) in the intensity autocorrelation. The number of detector locations is limited to two in orthogonal directions, reducing the complexity of the data gathering step whilst ensuring against an impoverishment of the measurement, by employing ultrasound frequency as a parameter to vary during data collection. The M and E are related via two partial differential equations. The first one connects M to the amplitude of vibration of the scattering centers in the focal volume and the other, this amplitude to E. A (composite) sensitivity matrix is arrived at mapping the variation of M with that of E and used in a (barely regularized) Gauss-Newton algorithm to iteratively recover E. The reconstruction results showing the variation of E are presented. (C) 2015 Optical Society of America

COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF A MULTI-LAYERED PIEZO-COMPOSITE BEAM MADE UP OF MFC

The Variational Asymptotic Method (VAM) is used for modeling a coupled non-linear electromechanical problem finding applications in aircrafts and Micro Aerial Vehicle (MAV) development. VAM coupled with geometrically exact kinematics forms a powerful tool for analyzing a complex nonlinear phenomena as shown previously by many in the literature 3 - 7] for various challenging problems like modeling of an initially twisted helicopter rotor blades, matrix crack propagation in a composite, modeling of hyper elastic plates and various multi-physics problems. The problem consists of design and analysis of a piezocomposite laminate applied with electrical voltage(s) which can induce direct and planar distributed shear stresses and strains in the structure. The deformations are large and conventional beam theories are inappropriate for the analysis. The behavior of an elastic body is completely understood by its energy. This energy must be integrated over the cross-sectional area to obtain the 1-D behavior as is typical in a beam analysis. VAM can be used efficiently to approximate 3-D strain energy as closely as possible. To perform this simplification, VAM makes use of thickness to width, width to length, width multiplied by initial twist and strain as small parameters embedded in the problem definition and provides a way to approach the exact solution asymptotically. In this work, above mentioned electromechanical problem is modeled using VAM which breaks down the 3-D elasticity problem into two parts, namely a 2-D non-linear cross-sectional analysis and a 1-D non-linear analysis, along the reference curve. The recovery relations obtained as a by-product in the cross-sectional analysis earlier are used to obtain 3-D stresses, displacements and velocity contours. The piezo-composite laminate which is chosen for an initial phase of computational modeling is made up of commercially available Macro Fiber Composites (MFCs) stacked together in an arbitrary lay-up and applied with electrical voltages for actuation. The expressions of sectional forces and moments as obtained from cross-sectional analysis in closed-form show the electro-mechanical coupling and relative contribution of electric field in individual layers of the piezo-composite laminate. The spatial and temporal constitutive law as obtained from the cross-sectional analysis are substituted into 1-D fully intrinsic, geometrically exact equilibrium equations of motion and 1-D intrinsic kinematical equations to solve for all 1-D generalized variables as function of time and an along the reference curve co-ordinate, x(1).