Loud calls of male Nilgiri langurs (Presbytis johnii): Age-, individual-, and population-specific differences

Adult male Nilgiri langurs (Presbytis johnii) utter loud call bouts consisting of one or more phrases. Phrases are made up of several units showing similar or different structural features. The units involved differ with respect to not only their physical structure but also their overall utilization: three vocal patterns are uttered exclusively by mature males living in bisexual groups or all-male bands and, in addition to being part of loud call bouts, are given during encounters with terrestrial predators; two vocal patterns are uttered by males and females, again not just as constituents of loud calls; and one vocal pattern is given exclusively by mature males living in bisexual groups. Within a given bout, phrases differ not only with respect to their composition but also in their temporal organization. In addition to the acoustic components, loud calls are regularly accompanied by stereotyped motoric displays. The motoric and acoustic components of loud call displays appear independently of each other and at different times during ontogeny. The development of the display is characterized by combination of units with different structural features and synchronization of vocal and motoric components. Although more evidence is needed, our observations suggest that the development of loud call displays coincides with the aquisitation of social maturation and competence and requires not only social experience but also a certain amount of motoric training. In spite of the high degree of ritualization, loud call displays are not completely fixed in form, but instead are open to individual- and population-specific variation.

Comparative Analyses of Age- and Sex-Specific Patterns of Vocal Behaviour in Four Species of Old World Monkeys

Sound recordings and behavioural data were collected from four primate species of two genera (Macaca, Presbytis). Comparative analyses of structural and behavioural aspects of vocal communication revealed a high degree of intrageneric similarity but striking intergeneric differences. In the two macaque species (Macaca silenus, Macaca radiata), males and females shared the major part of the repertoire. In contrast, in the two langurs (Presbytis johnii, Presbytis entellus), many calls were exclusive to adult males. Striking differences between both species groups occurred with respect to age-specific patterns of vocal behaviour. The diversity of vocal behaviour was assessed from the number of different calls used and the proportion of each call in relation to total vocal output for a given age/sex class. In Macaca, diversity decreases with the age of the vocalizer, whereas in Presbytis the age of the vocalizer and the diversity of vocal behaviour are positively correlated. A comparison of the data of the two genera does not suggest any causal relationship between group composition (e.g. multi-male vs. one-male group) and communication system. Within each genus, interspecific differences in vocal behaviour can be explained by differences in social behaviour (e.g. group cohesion, intergroup relation, mating behaviour) and functional disparities. Possible factors responsible for the pronounced intergeneric differences in vocal behaviour between Macaca and Presbytis are discussed.