Practical fully three-dimensional reconstruction algorithms for diffuse optical tomography

We have developed an efficient fully three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction algorithm for diffuse optical tomography (DOT). The 3D DOT, a severely ill-posed problem, is tackled through a pseudodynamic (PD) approach wherein an ordinary differential equation representing the evolution of the solution on pseudotime is integrated that bypasses an explicit inversion of the associated, ill-conditioned system matrix. One of the most computationally expensive parts of the iterative DOT algorithm, the reevaluation of the Jacobian in each of the iterations, is avoided by using the adjoint-Broyden update formula to provide low rank updates to the Jacobian. In addition, wherever feasible, we have also made the algorithm efficient by integrating along the quadratic path provided by the perturbation equation containing the Hessian. These algorithms are then proven by reconstruction, using simulated and experimental data and verifying the PD results with those from the popular Gauss-Newton scheme. The major findings of this work are as follows: (i) the PD reconstructions are comparatively artifact free, providing superior absorption coefficient maps in terms of quantitative accuracy and contrast recovery; (ii) the scaling of computation time with the dimension of the measurement set is much less steep with the Jacobian update formula in place than without it; and (iii) an increase in the data dimension, even though it renders the reconstruction problem less ill conditioned and thus provides relatively artifact-free reconstructions, does not necessarily provide better contrast property recovery. For the latter, one should also take care to uniformly distribute the measurement points, avoiding regions close to the source so that the relative strength of the derivatives for measurements away from the source does not become insignificant. (c) 2012 Optical Society of America

Linearization and Reconstruction of Non-linear Diffuse Optical Tomographic Image

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT) is one of the ways to probe highly scattering media such as tissue using low-energy near infra-red light (NIR) to reconstruct a map of the optical property distribution. The interaction of the photons in biological tissue is a non-linear process and the phton transport through the tissue is modelled using diffusion theory. The inversion problem is often solved through iterative methods based on nonlinear optimization for the minimization of a data-model misfit function. The solution of the non-linear problem can be improved by modeling and optimizing the cost functional. The cost functional is f(x) = x(T)Ax - b(T)x + c and after minimization, the cost functional reduces to Ax = b. The spatial distribution of optical parameter can be obtained by solving the above equation iteratively for x. As the problem is non-linear, ill-posed and ill-conditioned, there will be an error or correction term for x at each iteration. A linearization strategy is proposed for the solution of the nonlinear ill-posed inverse problem by linear combination of system matrix and error in solution. By propagating the error (e) information (obtained from previous iteration) to the minimization function f(x), we can rewrite the minimization function as f(x; e) = (x + e)(T) A(x + e) - b(T)(x + e) + c. The revised cost functional is f(x; e) = f(x) + e(T)Ae. The self guided spatial weighted prior (e(T)Ae) error (e, error in estimating x) information along the principal nodes facilitates a well resolved dominant solution over the region of interest. The local minimization reduces the spreading of inclusion and removes the side lobes, thereby improving the contrast, localization and resolution of reconstructed image which has not been possible with conventional linear and regularization algorithm.

Emitter near an arbitrary body: Purcell effect, optical theorem and the Wheeler-Feynman absorber

The altered spontaneous emission of an emitter near an arbitrary body can be elucidated using an energy balance of the electromagnetic field. From a classical point of view it is trivial to show that the field scattered back from any body should alter the emission of the source. But it is not at all apparent that the total radiative and non-radiative decay in an arbitrary body can add to the vacuum decay rate of the emitter (i.e.) an increase of emission that is just as much as the body absorbs and radiates in all directions. This gives us an opportunity to revisit two other elegant classical ideas of the past, the optical theorem and the Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory of radiation. It also provides us alternative perspectives of Purcell effect and generalizes many of its manifestations, both enhancement and inhibition of emission. When the optical density of states of a body or a material is difficult to resolve (in a complex geometry or a highly inhomogeneous volume) such a generalization offers new directions to solutions. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Structural, EPR, optical and Raman studies of Nd2O3:Cu2+ nanophosphors

Nanocrystalline Nd2O3:Cu2+ (2 mol %) phosphors have been prepared by a low temperature solution combustion technique. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) results confirm that hexagonal A-type Nd2O3 (900 degrees C, 3 h) and the lattice parameters have been evaluated by Rietveld refinement. Surface morphology of as-formed and Cu2+ doped Nd2O3 phosphors show that the particles are irregular in shape and porous in nature. TEM results also confirm the nature and size of the particles. The EPR spectrum exhibits two resonance signals with effective g values at g(parallel to) approximate to 2.12 and g(perpendicular to) approximate to 2.04. The g values indicate that the site symmetry of Cu2+ ions is octahedral symmetry with elongated tetragonal distortion. Raman studies show major peaks, which are assigned, to F-g and combination of A(g) + E-g modes. It is observed that the Raman peaks and intensity have been reduced in Cu2+ doped samples. UV-Visible absorption spectra exhibit a strong and broad absorption band at similar to 240 nm. Further, the absorption peak shifts to similar to 14 nm in Cu2+ doped samples. The optical band gap is estimated to be 5.28 eV for Cu doped Nd2O3 nanoparticles which are higher than the bulk Nd2O3 (4.7 eV). This can be attributed to the quantum confinement effect of the nanoparticles. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Influence of Sn doping on structural, optical and electrical properties of ZnO thin films prepared by cost effective sol-gel process

Tin (Sn) doped zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films were synthesized by sol-gel spin coating method using zinc acetate di-hydrate and tin chloride di-hydrate as the precursor materials. The films were deposited on glass and silicon substrates and annealed at different temperatures in air ambient. The agglomeration of grains was observed by the addition of Sn in ZnO film with an average grain size of 60 nm. The optical properties of the films were studied using UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer. The optical band gap energies were estimated at different concentrations of Sn. The MOS capacitors were fabricated using Sn doped ZnO films. The capacitance-voltage (C-V), dissipation vs. voltage (D-V) and current-voltage (I-V) characteristics were studied and the electrical resistivity and dielectric constant were estimated. The porosity and surface area of the films were increased with the doping of Sn which makes these films suitable for opto-electronic applications. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Light Induced Optical Properties Change in Sb20S40Se40 Thin Films

Thin films of Sb20S40Se40 of thickness 800 nm were prepared by thermal evaporation method. The as-prepared and illuminated thin films were studied by X-ray diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The optical band gap was reduced due to photo induced effects along with the increase in disorder. These optical properties changes are due to the change of homopolar bond densities. The core level peak shifting in XPS and Raman spectra supports the optical changes happening in the film due to light exposure.

Ionic conductivity of bis(2-cyanoethyl) ether-lithium salt and poly(propylether imine)-lithium salt liquid electrolytes

We report here a multiple-nitrile based lithium-salt liquid electrolyte. The ionic conductivity of poly (propyl ether imine) (abbreviated as PETIM) lithium salt dendrimer liquid electrolyte was observed to be a function of dendrimer generation number, n=0 (monomer)-3. While the highest room temperature ionic conductivity value (similar to 10(-1) Sm-1) was recorded for the bis-2cyanoethyl ether monomer (i.e. zeroth generation; G(0)-CN), conductivity decreased progressively to lower values (similar to 10(-3) Sm-1) with increase in generation number (G(1)-CN -> G(3)-CN). The G(0)-CN and higher dendrimer generations showed high thermal stability (approximate to 150 to 200 degrees C), low moisture sensitivity and tunable viscosity (similar to 10(-2) (G(0)-CN) to 3 (G(3)-CN) Pa s). The linker ether group was found to be crucial for ion transport and also eliminated a large number of detrimental features, chiefly moisture sensitivity, chemical instability associated typically with prevalent molecular liquid solvents. Based on the combination of several beneficial physicochemical properties, we presently envisage that the PETIM dendrimers especially the G(0)-CN electrolytes hold promise as electrolytes in electrochemical devices such as lithium-ion batteries.

Green synthesis of biopolymer-silver nanoparticle nanocomposite: An optical sensor for ammonia detection

Biopolymer used for the production of nanoparticles (NPs) has attracted increasing attention. In the presence article we use aqueous solution of polysaccharide Cyamopsis tetragonaloba commonly known as guar gum (GG), from plants. GG acts as reductive preparation of silver nanoparticles which are found to be <10. nm in size. The uniformity of the NPs size was measured by the SEM and TEM, while a face centered cubic structure of crystalline silver nanoparticles was characterized using powder X-ray diffraction technique. Aqueous ammonia sensing study of polymer/silver nanoparticles nanocomposite (GG/AgNPs NC) was performed by optical method based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The performances of optical sensor were investigated which provide the excellent result. The response time of 2-3. s and the detection limit of ammonia solution, 1. ppm were found at room temperature. Thus, in future this room temperature optical ammonia sensor can be used for clinical and medical diagnosis for detecting low ammonia level in biological fluids, such as plasma, sweat, saliva, cerebrospinal liquid or biological samples in general for various biomedical applications in human. © 2012 Elsevier B.V.

Effect of cryogenic treatment on thermal conductivity properties of copper

Copper exhibits high thermal conductivity properties and hence it is extensively used in cryogenic applications like cold fingers, heat exchangers, etc. During the realization of such components, copper undergoes various machining operations from the raw material stage to the final component. During these machining processes, stresses are induced within the metal resulting in internal stresses, strains and dislocations. These effects build up resistance paths for the heat carriers which transfer heat from one location to the other. This in turn, results in reduction of thermal conductivity of the conducting metal and as a result the developed component will not perform as per expectations. In the process of cryogenic treatment, the metal samples are exposed to cryogenic temperature for extended duration of time for 24 hours and later tempered. During this process, the internal stresses and strains are reduced with refinement of the atomic structure. These effects are expected to favourably improve thermal conductivity properties of the metal. In this experimental work, OFHC copper samples were cryotreated for 24 hours at 98 K and part of them were tempered at 423K for one hour. Significant enhancement of thermal conductivity values were observed after cryotreating and tempering the copper samples.

Optical Properties Study of S40Se60-xSbx Bulk Alloys

Bulk samples of S40Se60-xSbx (with x=10, 20, 30, 40 at. %) were prepared from high purity S, Se and Sb by melt quenching method. XRD studies revealed that all the samples have poly-crystalline phase. The variation in optical properties with composition has been investigated by XPS and Raman spectroscopy. The intensity of XPS core level spectra changes with addition of Sb clearly interprets the optical properties change due to compositional variation. The Raman shift and new peak formation in these samples clearly shows the structural modifications due to Sb addition.

Photo induced Effects on the Optical Properties of Sb40Se20S40 Thin Film

The thermally evaporated amorphous Sb40Se20S40 thin film of 800 nm thickness was subjected to light exposure for photo induced studies. The as-prepared and illuminated thin films were studied by X-ray diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy. The optical band gap was reduced due to photo induced effects along with the increase in disorder. These optical properties changes are due to the change of homopolar bond densities. The core level peak shifting in XPS spectra supports the optical changes happening in the film due to light exposure.

Effect of Thickness on The Optical Properties Change in Bi/As2S3 Bilayer Thin Films

Bilayer thin films of Bi/As2S3 were prepared from Bi and As2S3 by thermal evaporation technique under high vacuum. We have prepared three bilayer films of 905nm, 910nm and 915nm thickness with with As2S3 as bottom layer (900nm) and Bi as top layer (5,10,15 nm). We have compared the optical changes due to the thickness variation of Bi layer on As2S3 film. The changes were characterized by FTIR and XPS techniques.

Mesh Simplification Based on Edge Collapsing Could Improve Computational Efficiency in Near Infrared Optical Tomographic Imaging

The diffusion equation-based modeling of near infrared light propagation in tissue is achieved by using finite-element mesh for imaging real-tissue types, such as breast and brain. The finite-element mesh size (number of nodes) dictates the parameter space in the optical tomographic imaging. Most commonly used finite-element meshing algorithms do not provide the flexibility of distinct nodal spacing in different regions of imaging domain to take the sensitivity of the problem into consideration. This study aims to present a computationally efficient mesh simplification method that can be used as a preprocessing step to iterative image reconstruction, where the finite-element mesh is simplified by using an edge collapsing algorithm to reduce the parameter space at regions where the sensitivity of the problem is relatively low. It is shown, using simulations and experimental phantom data for simple meshes/domains, that a significant reduction in parameter space could be achieved without compromising on the reconstructed image quality. The maximum errors observed by using the simplified meshes were less than 0.27% in the forward problem and 5% for inverse problem.

Effect of doping concentration on the structural and optical properties of pure and tin doped zinc oxide thin films by nebulizer spray pyrolysis (NSP) technique

Pure and tin doped zinc oxide (Sn:ZnO) thin films were prepared for the first time by NSP technique using aqueous solutions of zinc acetate dehydrate, tin (IV) chloride fendahydrate and methanol. X-ray diffraction patterns confirm that the films are polycrystalline in nature exhibiting hexagonal wurtzite type, with (0 0 2) as preferred orientation. The structural parameters such as lattice constant ('a' and `c'), crystallite size, dislocation density, micro strain, stress and texture coefficient were calculated from X-ray diffraction studies. Surface morphology was found to be modified with increasing Sn doping concentration. The ZnO films have high transmittance 85% in the visible region, and the transmittance is found to be decreased with the increase of Sn doping concentration. The corresponding optical band gap decreases from 3.25 to 3.08 eV. Room temperature photoluminescence reveals the sharp emission of strong UV peak at 400 nm (3.10 eV) and a strong sharp green luminescence at 528 nm (2.34 eV) in the Sn doped ZnO films. The electrical resistivity is found to be 10(6) Omega-cm at higher temperature and 10(5) Omega-cm at lower temperature. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Data-resolution based optimization of the data-collection strategy for near infrared diffuse optical tomography

Purpose: To optimize the data-collection strategy for diffuse optical tomography and to obtain a set of independent measurements among the total measurements using the model based data-resolution matrix characteristics. Methods: The data-resolution matrix is computed based on the sensitivity matrix and the regularization scheme used in the reconstruction procedure by matching the predicted data with the actual one. The diagonal values of data-resolution matrix show the importance of a particular measurement and the magnitude of off-diagonal entries shows the dependence among measurements. Based on the closeness of diagonal value magnitude to off-diagonal entries, the independent measurements choice is made. The reconstruction results obtained using all measurements were compared to the ones obtained using only independent measurements in both numerical and experimental phantom cases. The traditional singular value analysis was also performed to compare the results obtained using the proposed method. Results: The results indicate that choosing only independent measurements based on data-resolution matrix characteristics for the image reconstruction does not compromise the reconstructed image quality significantly, in turn reduces the data-collection time associated with the procedure. When the same number of measurements (equivalent to independent ones) are chosen at random, the reconstruction results were having poor quality with major boundary artifacts. The number of independent measurements obtained using data-resolution matrix analysis is much higher compared to that obtained using the singular value analysis. Conclusions: The data-resolution matrix analysis is able to provide the high level of optimization needed for effective data-collection in diffuse optical imaging. The analysis itself is independent of noise characteristics in the data, resulting in an universal framework to characterize and optimize a given data-collection strategy. (C) 2012 American Association of Physicists in Medicine. http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.4736820]