Generalised regression estimation for domain class frequencies

This study examines the properties of Generalised Regression (GREG) estimators for domain class frequencies and proportions. The family of GREG estimators forms the class of design-based model-assisted estimators. All GREG estimators utilise auxiliary information via modelling. The classic GREG estimator with a linear fixed effects assisting model (GREG-lin) is one example. But when estimating class frequencies, the study variable is binary or polytomous. Therefore logistic-type assisting models (e.g. logistic or probit model) should be preferred over the linear one. However, other GREG estimators than GREG-lin are rarely used, and knowledge about their properties is limited. This study examines the properties of L-GREG estimators, which are GREG estimators with fixed-effects logistic-type models. Three research questions are addressed. First, I study whether and when L-GREG estimators are more accurate than GREG-lin. Theoretical results and Monte Carlo experiments which cover both equal and unequal probability sampling designs and a wide variety of model formulations show that in standard situations, the difference between L-GREG and GREG-lin is small. But in the case of a strong assisting model, two interesting situations arise: if the domain sample size is reasonably large, L-GREG is more accurate than GREG-lin, and if the domain sample size is very small, estimation of assisting model parameters may be inaccurate, resulting in bias for L-GREG. Second, I study variance estimation for the L-GREG estimators. The standard variance estimator (S) for all GREG estimators resembles the Sen-Yates-Grundy variance estimator, but it is a double sum of prediction errors, not of the observed values of the study variable. Monte Carlo experiments show that S underestimates the variance of L-GREG especially if the domain sample size is minor, or if the assisting model is strong. Third, since the standard variance estimator S often fails for the L-GREG estimators, I propose a new augmented variance estimator (A). The difference between S and the new estimator A is that the latter takes into account the difference between the sample fit model and the census fit model. In Monte Carlo experiments, the new estimator A outperformed the standard estimator S in terms of bias, root mean square error and coverage rate. Thus the new estimator provides a good alternative to the standard estimator.

Confucian education and enlightenment for the masses in the manner of Guwen guanzhi

The topic of this study is the most renowned anthology of essays written in Literary Chinese, Guwen guanzhi, compiled and edited by Wu Chengquan (Chucai) and Wu Dazhi (Diaohou), and first published during the Qing dynasty, in 1695. Because of the low social standing of the compilers, their anthology remained outside the recommended study materials produced by members of the established literati and used for preparing students in the imperial civil-service examinations. However, since the end of the imperial era, Guwen guanzhi has risen to a position as the classical anthology par excellence. Today it is widely used as required or supplementary reading material of Literary Chinese in middle-schools both in Mainland China and on Taiwan. The goal of this study is to explain the persistent longevity of the anthology. So far, Guwen guanzhi has not been a topic of any published academic study, and the opinions expressed on it in various sources are widely discrepant. Through a comparative study with a dozen classical Chinese anthologies in use during the early Qing dynasty, this study reveals the extent to which the compilers of Guwen guanzhi modelled their work after other selections. Altogether 86 % of the texts in Guwen guanzhi originate from another Qing era anthology, Guwen xiyi, often copied character by character. However, the notes and commentaries are all different. Concentrating on the special characteristics unique to Guwen guanzhi—the commentaries and certain peculiarities in the selection of texts—this study then discusses the possible reasons for the popularity of Guwen guanzhi over the competing readers during the Qing era. Most remarkably, Guwen guanzhi put in practise the equalitarian, educational ideals of the Ming philosopher Wang Shouren (Yangming). Thus Guwen guanzhi suited the self-enlightenment needs of the ”subordinate classes”, in particular the rising middle-class comprised mainly of merchants. The lack of moral teleology, together with the compact size, relative comprehensiveness of the selection and good notes and comments, have made Guwen guanzhi well suited for the new society since the abolition of the imperial examination system. Through a content analysis, based on a sample of the texts, this study measures the relative emphasis on centralism and localism (both in concrete and spiritual terms) expressed in the texts of Guwen guanzhi. The analysis shows that the texts manifest some bias towards emphasising innate virtue on the expense of state-defined moral. This may reflect hidden critique towards intellectual oppression by the centralised imperial rule. During the early decades of the Qing era, such critique was often linked to Ming-loyalism. Finally, this study concludes that the kind of ”spiritual localism” that Guwen guanzhi manifests gives it the potential to undermine monolithic orthodoxy even in today’s Chinese societies. This study has progressed hand in hand with the translation of a selection of texts from Guwen guanzhi into Finnish, published by Gaudeamus Helsinki University Press: Jadekasvot – Valittuja tarinoita Kiinan muinaisajoilta (2005), Jadelähde – Valittuja kirjoituksia Kiinan keskiajalta (2007) and Jadepeili – Valittuja kirjoituksia keisarillisen Kiinan kulta-ajoilta (2008). All translations are critical editions, complete with extensive notation. The trilogy is the first comprehensive translation based on Guwen guanzhi in a European language.

Representing the epistemic nature of teachers’ practical knowledge : The case of class teachers’ general pedagogy

The present study addressed the epistemology of teachers’ practical knowledge. Drawing from the literature, teachers’ practical knowledge is defined as all teachers’ cognitions (e.g., beliefs, values, motives, procedural knowing, and declarative knowledge) that guide their practice of teaching. The teachers’ reasoning that lies behind their practical knowledge is addressed to gain insight into its epistemic nature. I studied six class teachers’ practical knowledge; they teach in the metropolitan region of Helsinki. Relying on the assumptions of the phenomenographic inquiry, I collected and analyzed the data. I analyzed the data in two stages where the first stage involved an abductive procedure, and the second stage an inductive procedure for interpretation, and thus developed the system of categories. In the end, a quantitative analysis nested into the qualitative findings to study the patterns of the teachers’’ reasoning. The results indicated that teachers justified their practical knowledge based on morality and efficiency of action; efficiency of action was found to be presented in two different ways: authentic efficiency and naïve efficiency. The epistemic weight of morality was embedded in what I call “moral care”. The core intention of teachers in the moral care was the commitment that they felt about the “whole character” of students. From this perspective the “dignity” and the moral character of the students should not replaced for any other “instrumental price”. “Caring pedagogy” was the epistemic value of teachers’ reasoning in the authentic efficiency. The central idea in the caring pedagogy was teachers’ intentions to improve the “intellectual properties” of “all or most” of the students using “flexible” and “diverse” pedagogies. However, “regulating pedagogy” was the epistemic condition of practice in the cases corresponding to naïve efficiency. Teachers argued that an effective practical knowledge should regulate and manage the classroom activities, but the targets of the practical knowledge were mainly other “issues “or a certain percentage of the students. In these cases, the teachers’ arguments were mainly based on the notion of “what worked” regardless of reflecting on “what did not work”. Drawing from the theoretical background and the data, teachers’ practical knowledge calls for “praxial knowledge” when they used the epistemic conditions of “caring pedagogy” and “moral care”. It however calls for “practicable” epistemic status when teachers use the epistemic condition of regulating pedagogy. As such, praxial knowledge with the dimensions of caring pedagogy and moral care represents the “normative” perspective on teachers’ practical knowledge, and thus reflects a higher epistemic status in comparison to “practicable” knowledge, which represents a “descriptive” perception toward teachers’ practical knowledge and teaching.

Cervical headgear in Class II division 1 correction in children : Academic Dissertation

Class II division 1 malocclusion occurs in 3.5 to 13 percent of 7 12 year-old children. It is the most common reason for orthodontic treatment in Finland. Correction is most commonly performed using headgear treatment. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of cervical headgear treatment on dentition, facial skeletal and soft tissue growth, and upper airway structure, in children. 65 schoolchildren, 36 boys and 29 girls were studied. At the onset of treatment a mean age was 9.3 (range 6.6 12.4) years. All the children were consequently referred to an orthodontist because of Class II division 1 malocclusion. The included children had protrusive maxilla and an overjet of more than 2mm (3 to 11 mm). The children were treated with a Kloehn-type cervical headgear as the only appliance until Class I first molar relationships were achieved. The essential features of the headgear were cervical strong pulling forces, a long upward bent outer bow, and an expanded inner bow. Dental casts and lateral and posteroanterior cephalograms were taken before and after the treatment. The results were compared to a historical, cross-sectional Finnish cohort or to historical, age- and sex-matched normal Class I controls. The Class I first molar relationships were achieved in all the treated children. The mean treatment time was 1.7 (range 0.3-3.1) years. Phase 2 treatments were needed in 52% of the children, most often because of excess overjet or overbite. The treatment decreased maxillary protrusion by inhibiting alveolar forward growth, while the rest of the maxilla and mandible followed normal growth. The palate rotated anteriorly downward. The expansion of the inner bow of the headgear induced widening of the maxilla, nasal cavity, and the upper and lower dental arches. Class II malocclusion was associated with narrower oro- and hypopharyngeal space than in the Class I normal controls. The treatment increased the retropalatal airway space, while the rest of the airway remained unaffected. The facial profile improved esthetically, while the facial convexity decreased. Facial soft tissues masked the facial skeletal convexity, and the soft tissue changes were smaller than skeletal changes. In conclusion, the headgear treatment with the expanded inner bow may be used as an easy and simple method for Class II correction in growing children.

Social-class inequalities in ill health - the contribution of physical workload

Tutkimuksen aiheita olivat yhteiskuntaluokkien väliset erot sairastavuudessa ja alentuneessa toimintakyvyssä, sekä fyysisen työkuormituksen ja joidenkin muiden työolojen vaikutus sairastavuuteen. Empiirisestä työstä on raportoitu myös neljässä kansainvälisissä tieteellisissä aikakauskirjoissa julkaistussa artikkelissa. Tässä julkaistu yhteenveto sisältää tulosten yhteenvedon lisäksi myös tutkimusta koskevien käsitteellisten ja teoreettisten kysymysten sekä tutkimustradition kriittisen katsauksen. Työn päätavoitteita olivat 1) tutkia fyysisesti kuormittavan työn, ja jossain määrin muiden työolojen osuutta yhteiskuntaluokkien välisiin eroihin sairaudessa ja toimintakyvyn alentuneisuudessa; 2) tutkia työn fyysisen kuormittavuuden, työhön liittyvien vaikutusmahdollisuuksien ja hallinnan (decision latitude), luokka-aseman, iän ja sukupuolen yhteisvaikutuksia heikentyneeseen terveydentilaan; sekä 3) tutkia missä määrin mekaanisten työaltisteiden ja tuki- ja liikuntaelinsairastavuuden välinen yhteys voi selittää yhteiskuntaluokkien välisiä eroja heikentyneessä yleisessä terveydentilassa. Tutkittavat olivat keski-ikäisiä Helsingin kaupungin työntekijöitä. Analyysit perustuivat poikittaisasetelmaan, ja käytetty aineisto oli Helsinki Health Studyn vuosien 2000 ja 2002 välillä kerättyä aineistoa. Analyyseihin käytetyssä aineistossa oli 3740:stä 8002:een tutkittavaa. Tulosten perusteella fyysisillä (sekä fysikaalisilla) työoloilla on merkittävä vaikutus yhteiskuntaluokkien välisiin eroihin yleisessä sairastavuudessa, toimintakyvyn heikentymisessä, tuki- ja liikuntaelinsairastavuudessa sekä itsearvioidussa terveydentilassa. Naisilla lähes puolet heikentyneen toimintakyvyn ja koetun terveydentilan luokkaeroista vaikutti olevan selitettävissä fyysisellä työkuormituksella. Hallintamahdollisuuksien ei havaittu merkittävästi muuttavan fyysisen kuormituksen vaikutusta toimintakykyyn. Fyysisen kuormittavuuden terveysvaikutus voimistui kasvavan iän mukaan enemmän naisilla kuin miehillä. Osa, mutta ei koko fyysisen kuormituksen vaikutus yhteiskuntaluokkien eroihin heikentyneessä terveydessä vaikutti välittyvän tuki- ja liikuntaelinsairastavuuden kautta. Terveys ja sairaus eivät ole yhtenäisiä tiloja, ja siksi monet eri sosiaalisesti ja rakenteellisesti määräytyvät olosuhteet todennäköisesti vaikuttavat yhteiskunnallisten terveyserojen syntymiseen. Fyysis-materiaalisten olojen vaikutusta terveyserojen syntyyn nyky-yhteiskunnassa on mahdollisesti aliarvioitu. Yhteiskuntaluokkien väliset erot fyysis-materiaalisissa olosuhteissa eivät ole kadonneet, ja nämä erot todennäköisesti vaikuttavat terveyserojen syntyyn.

Tree mortality and deadwood dynamics in late-successional boreal forests

Here I aimed at quantifying the main components of deadwood dynamics, i.e. tree mortality, deadwood pools, and their decomposition, in late-successional boreal forests. I focused on standing dead trees in three stand types dominated by Picea mariana and Abies balsamea in eastern Canada, and on standing and down dead trees in Picea abies-dominated stands in three areas in Northern Europe. Dead and living trees were measured on five sample plots of 1.6-ha size in each study area and stand type. Stem disks from dead trees were sampled to determine wood density and year of death, using dendrochronological methods. The results were applied to reconstruct past tree mortality and to model deadwood decay class dynamics. Site productivity, stand developmental stage, and the occurrence of episodic tree mortality influenced deadwood volume and quality. In all study areas tree mortality was continuous, leading to continuity in deadwood decay stage distribution. Episodic tree mortality due to either autogenic or allogenic causes influenced deadwood volume and quality in all but one study area. However, regardless of productivity and disturbance history deadwood was abundant, accounting for 20 53% of total wood volume in European study areas, and 15 27% of total standing volume in eastern Canada. Deadwood was a persistent structural component, since its expected residence time in early- and midstages of decay was 18 yr even in the area with the most rapid decomposition. The results indicated that in the absence of episodic tree mortality, stands may eventually develop to a steady state, in which deadwood volume fluctuates around an equilibrium state. However, in many forests deadwood is naturally variable, due to recurrent moderate-severity disturbances. This variability, the continuous tree mortality, and variation in rates of wood decomposition determine the dynamics and availability of deadwood as a habitat and carbon storage medium in boreal coniferous forest ecosystems.

Biochemical and structural properties of Potato virus A VPg

The potato virus A (PVA) genome linked protein (VPg) is a multifunctional protein that takes part in vital infection cycle events such as replication and movement of the virus from cell to cell. VPg is attached to the 5´ end of the genome and is carried in the tip structure of the filamentous virus particle. VPg is also the last protein to be cleaved from the polyprotein. VPg interacts with several viral and host proteins and is phosphorylated at several positions. These features indicate a central role in virus epidemiology and a requirement for an efficient but flexible mechanism for switching between different functions. -- This study examines some of the key VPg functions in more detail. Mutations in the positively charged region from Ala38 to Lys44 affected the NTP binding, uridylylation, and in vitro translation inhibition activities of VPg, whereas in vivo translation inhibition was not affected. Some of the data generated in this study implicated the structural flexibility of the protein in functional activities. VPg lacks a rigid structure, which could allow it to adapt conformationally to different functions as needed. A major finding of this study is that PVA VPg belongs to the class of ´intrinsically disordered proteins´ (IDPs). IDPs are a novel protein class that has helped to explain the observed lack of structure. The existence of IDPs clearly shows that proteins can be functional and adapt a native fold without a rigid structure. Evidence for the intrinsic disorder of VPg was provided by CD spectroscopy, NMR, fluorescence spectroscopy, bioinformatic analysis, and limited proteolytic digestion. The structure of VPg resembles that of a molten globule-type protein and has a hydrophobic core domain. Approximately 50% of the protein is disordered and an α-helical stabilization of these regions has been hypothesized. Surprisingly, VPg structure was stabilized in the presence of anionic lipid vesicles. The stabilization was accompanied by a change in VPg structure and major morphological modifications of the vesicles, including a pronounced increase in the size and appearance of pore or plaque like formations on the vesicle surface. The most likely scenario seems to be an α-helical stabilization of VPg which induces formation of a pore or channel-like structure on the vesicle surface. The size increase is probably due to fusion or swelling of the vesicles. The latter hypothesis is supported by the evident disruption of the vesicles after prolonged incubation with VPg. A model describing the results is presented and discussed in relation to other known properties of the protein.

Chemical and source characterisation of size-segregated urban air particulate matter

Recent epidemiological studies have shown a consistent association of the mass concentration of urban air thoracic (PM10) and fine (PM2.5) particles with mortality and morbidity among cardiorespiratory patients. However, the chemical characteristics of different particulate size ranges and the biological mechanisms responsible for these adverse health effects are not well known. The principal aims of this thesis were to validate a high volume cascade impactor (HVCI) for the collection of particulate matter for physicochemical and toxicological studies, and to make an in-depth chemical and source characterisation of samples collected during different pollution situations. The particulate samples were collected with the HVCI, virtual impactors and a Berner low pressure impactor in six European cities: Helsinki, Duisburg, Prague, Amsterdam, Barcelona and Athens. The samples were analysed for particle mass, common ions, total and water-soluble elements as well as elemental and organic carbon. Laboratory calibration and field comparisons indicated that the HVCI can provide a unique large capacity, high efficiency sampling of size-segregated aerosol particles. The cutoff sizes of the recommended HVCI configuration were 2.4, 0.9 and 0.2 μm. The HVCI mass concentrations were in a good agreement with the reference methods, but the chemical composition of especially the fine particulate samples showed some differences. This implies that the chemical characterization of the exposure variable in toxicological studies needs to be done from the same HVCI samples as used in cell and animal studies. The data from parallel, low volume reference samplers provide valuable additional information for chemical mass closure and source assessment. The major components of PM2.5 in the virtual impactor samples were carbonaceous compounds, secondary inorganic ions and sea salt, whereas those of coarse particles (PM2.5-10) were soil-derived compounds, carbonaceous compounds, sea salt and nitrate. The major and minor components together accounted for 77-106% and 77-96% of the gravimetrically-measured masses of fine and coarse particles, respectively. Relatively large differences between sampling campaigns were observed in the organic carbon content of the PM2.5 samples as well as the mineral composition of the PM2.5-10 samples. A source assessment based on chemical tracers suggested clear differences in the dominant sources (e.g. traffic, residential heating with solid fuels, metal industry plants, regional or long-range transport) between the sampling campaigns. In summary, the field campaigns exhibited different profiles with regard to particulate sources, size distribution and chemical composition, thus, providing a highly useful setup for toxicological studies on the size-segregated HVCI samples.

Regulation of Growth by Drosophila FoxO Transcription Factor

Forkhead box class O (FoxO) transcription factors are members of the forkhead box transcription factor superfamily, with orthologues in various species such as human, worm and fly. FoxO proteins are key regulators of growth, metabolism, stress resistance and, consequently, life span. FoxOs integrate signals from different pathways, e.g. the growth controlling Insulin-TOR signaling pathway and the stress induced JNK and Hippo signaling pathways. FoxO proteins have evolved to guide the cellular response to varying energy and stress conditions by inducing the expression of genes involved in the regulation of growth and metabolism. This work has aimed to deepen the understanding of how FoxO executes its biological functions. A particular emphasis has been laid to its role in growth control. Specifically, evidence is presented indicating that FoxO restricts tissue growth in a situation when TOR signaling is high. This finding can have implications in a human condition called Tuberous sclerosis, manifested by multiple benign tumors. Further, it is shown that FoxO directly binds to the promoter and regulates the expression of a Drosophila Adenylate cyclase gene, ac76e, which in turn modulates the fly s development and growth systemically. These results strengthen FoxOs position among central size regulators as it is able to operate at the level of individual cells as well as in the whole organism. Finally, an attempt to reveal the regulatory network upstream of FoxO has been carried out. Several putative FoxO activity regulators were identified in an RNAi screen of Drosophila kinases and phosphatases. The results underscore that FoxO is regulated through an elaborate network, ensuring the correct execution of key cellular processes in metabolism and response to stress. Overall, the evidence provided in this study strengthens our view of FoxO as a key integrator of growth and stress signals.

The role of MADS and TCP transcription factors in Gerbera hybrida flower development

Angiosperms represent a huge diversity in floral structures. Thus, they provide an attractive target for comparative developmental genetics studies. Research on flower development has focused on few main model plants, and studies on these species have revealed the importance of transcription factors, such as MADS-box and TCP genes, for regulating the floral form. The MADS-box genes determine floral organ identities, whereas the TCP genes are known to regulate flower shape and the number of floral organs. In this study, I have concentrated on these two gene families and their role in regulating flower development in Gerbera hybrida, a species belonging to the large sunflower family (Asteraceae). The Gerbera inflorescence is comprised of hundreds of tightly clustered flowers that differ in their size, shape and function according to their position in the inflorescence. The presence of distinct flower types tells Gerbera apart from the common model species that bear only single kinds of flowers in their inflorescences. The marginally located ray flowers have large bilaterally symmetrical petals and non-functional stamens. The centrally located disc flowers are smaller, have less pronounced bilateral symmetry and carry functional stamens. Early stages of flower development were studied in Gerbera to understand the differentiation of flower types better. After morphological analysis, we compared gene expression between ray and disc flowers to reveal transcriptional differences in flower types. Interestingly, MADS-box genes showed differential expression, suggesting that they might take part in defining flower types by forming flower-type-specific regulatory complexes. Functional analysis of a CYCLOIDEA-like TCP gene GhCYC2 provided evidence that TCP transcription factors are involved in flower type differentiation in Gerbera. The expression of GhCYC2 is ray-flower-specific at early stages of development and activated only later in disc flowers. Overexpression of GhCYC2 in transgenic Gerbera-lines causes disc flowers to obtain ray-flower-like characters, such as elongated petals and disrupted stamen development. The expression pattern and transgenic phenotypes further suggest that GhCYC2 may shape ray flowers by promoting organ fusion. Cooperation of GhCYC2 with other Gerbera CYC-like TCP genes is most likely needed for proper flower type specification, and by this means for shaping the elaborate inflorescence structure. Gerbera flower development was also approached by characterizing B class MADS-box genes, which in the main model plants are known regulators of petal and stamen identity. The four Gerbera B class genes were phylogenetically grouped into three clades; GGLO1 into the PI/GLO clade, GDEF2 and GDEF3 into the euAP3 clade and GDEF1 into the TM6 clade. Putative orthologs for GDEF2 and GDEF3 were identified in other Asteraceae species, which suggests that they appeared through an Asteraceae-specific duplication. Functional analyses indicated that GGLO1 and GDEF2 perform conventional B-function as they determine petal and stamen identities. Our studies on GDEF1 represent the first functional analysis of a TM6-like gene outside the Solanaceae lineage and provide further evidence for the role of TM6 clade members in specifying stamen development. Overall, the Gerbera B class genes showed both commonalities and diversifications with the conventional B-function described in the main model plants.