Microfinance, Efficiency and Agricultural Production in Bangladesh

The objectives of this study were to make a detailed and systematic empirical analysis of microfinance borrowers and non-borrowers in Bangladesh and also examine how efficiency measures are influenced by the access to agricultural microfinance. In the empirical analysis, this study used both parametric and non-parametric frontier approaches to investigate differences in efficiency estimates between microfinance borrowers and non-borrowers. This thesis, based on five articles, applied data obtained from a survey of 360 farm households from north-central and north-western regions in Bangladesh. The methods used in this investigation involve stochastic frontier (SFA) and data envelopment analysis (DEA) in addition to sample selectivity and limited dependent variable models. In article I, technical efficiency (TE) estimation and identification of its determinants were performed by applying an extended Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier production function. The results show that farm households had a mean TE of 83% with lower TE scores for the non-borrowers of agricultural microfinance. Addressing institutional policies regarding the consolidation of individual plots into farm units, ensuring access to microfinance, extension education for the farmers with longer farming experience are suggested to improve the TE of the farmers. In article II, the objective was to assess the effects of access to microfinance on household production and cost efficiency (CE) and to determine the efficiency differences between the microfinance participating and non-participating farms. In addition, a non-discretionary DEA model was applied to capture directly the influence of microfinance on farm households production and CE. The results suggested that under both pooled DEA models and non-discretionary DEA models, farmers with access to microfinance were significantly more efficient than their non-borrowing counterparts. Results also revealed that land fragmentation, family size, household wealth, on farm-training and off farm income share are the main determinants of inefficiency after effectively correcting for sample selection bias. In article III, the TE of traditional variety (TV) and high-yielding-variety (HYV) rice producers were estimated in addition to investigating the determinants of adoption rate of HYV rice. Furthermore, the role of TE as a potential determinant to explain the differences of adoption rate of HYV rice among the farmers was assessed. The results indicated that in spite of its much higher yield potential, HYV rice production was associated with lower TE and had a greater variability in yield. It was also found that TE had a significant positive influence on the adoption rates of HYV rice. In article IV, we estimated profit efficiency (PE) and profit-loss between microfinance borrowers and non-borrowers by a sample selection framework, which provided a general framework for testing and taking into account the sample selection in the stochastic (profit) frontier function analysis. After effectively correcting for selectivity bias, the mean PE of the microfinance borrowers and non-borrowers were estimated at 68% and 52% respectively. This suggested that a considerable share of profits were lost due to profit inefficiencies in rice production. The results also demonstrated that access to microfinance contributes significantly to increasing PE and reducing profit-loss per hectare land. In article V, the effects of credit constraints on TE, allocative efficiency (AE) and CE were assessed while adequately controlling for sample selection bias. The confidence intervals were determined by the bootstrap method for both samples. The results indicated that differences in average efficiency scores of credit constrained and unconstrained farms were not statistically significant although the average efficiencies tended to be higher in the group of unconstrained farms. After effectively correcting for selectivity bias, household experience, number of dependents, off-farm income, farm size, access to on farm training and yearly savings were found to be the main determinants of inefficiencies. In general, the results of the study revealed the existence substantial technical, allocative, economic inefficiencies and also considerable profit inefficiencies. The results of the study suggested the need to streamline agricultural microfinance by the microfinance institutions (MFIs), donor agencies and government at all tiers. Moreover, formulating policies that ensure greater access to agricultural microfinance to the smallholder farmers on a sustainable basis in the study areas to enhance productivity and efficiency has been recommended. Key Words: Technical, allocative, economic efficiency, DEA, Non-discretionary DEA, selection bias, bootstrapping, microfinance, Bangladesh.

Hyväntekeväisyys, lapset ja lahjat : negatiivinen vastavuoroisuus työssä käyvien lasten koulussa Quitossa

Tutkimuskohteeni ovat erään koulun oppilaat Quitossa, Ecuadorissa. Tutkin oppilaiden toimintaa lahjoituksena saatujen sekä kadulta löydettyjen tai varastettujen esineiden parissa. Tavaroihin kohdistuvien käytäntöjen kautta pohdin oppilaiden suhdetta toisiinsa ja vanhempiinsa. Lisäksi tarkastelen oppilaiden suhtautumista koulun toimintaa hyväntekeväisyyden kautta tukeviin ulkomaalaisiin vierailijoihin ja koululla työskenteleviin ulkomaalaisiin vapaaehtoisiin. Pohdin oppilaiden kokemusta hyväntekeväisyydestä sekä asemastaan, epätasa-arvosta ja eroista globaalissa kontekstissa. Tutkimusmenetelmäni on osallistuva havainnointi ja hyväntekeväisyyteen perustuva lahjananto analyysini lähtökohta. Tarkastelen aineistoani negatiivisen vastavuoroisuuden (Sahlins 2004) teoreettisessa kontekstissa. Sosiaalista suhdetta karttava negatiivinen vastavuoroisuus on vastakohta solidaariselle vastavuoroisuudelle, joka kannattelee klassista antropologista lahjateoriaa. Tarkastelen lahjoittamista hyväntekeväisyyden idean määrittämänä yksisuuntaisena ilmiönä ja erittelen sekä lahjoittajien että vastaanottajien siihen kohdistamia asenteita ja merkityksiä. Esitän vaihtoehdon tulkinnalle, jonka mukaan vastaanottajan negatiivinen suhtautuminen ja kiittämättömyys johtuvat lahjoittajasta (Douglas 1999). Nämä voivat olla myös merkki negatiivisen vastavuoroisesta suhtautumisesta, jonka itsetarkoitus on pitää yllä sosiaalista etäisyyttä. Erittelen negatiivisen vastavuoroisuuden saamia ilmenemismuotoja suhteessa vierailijoihin ja vapaaehtoisiin sekä oppilaiden vertaissuhteissa. Oppilaiden suhtautuminen ulkomaalaisiin osoitti heidän tiedostavan globaalin hierarkian ja varallisuuserot. He tulkitsivat vierailijoiden ja vapaaehtoisten tulon hyväntekeväisyyden kautta. Ulkopuoliset tulevat antaakseen jotakin, joka heillä on sosiaalisen asemansa perusteella oikeus saada. Oppilaiden toiminta heille lahjoitettujen tavaroiden parissa toi ilmi, että heidän solidaarisen vastavuoroiset suhteensa eivät olleet kouluympäristössä. Tavarat katosivat koulusta pian niiden saamisen jälkeen. Oppilaiden toiminta kertoikin resurssien kertymisen tarpeesta ja solidaarisuudesta perhettä kohtaan sekä negatiivisen vastavuoroisista suhteista vertaisiin.

Divergencies of Perception : The Possibilities of Merleau-Pontian Phenomenology in Analyses of Contemporary Art

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961) has been known as the philosopher of painting. His interest in the theory of perception intertwined with the questions concerning the artist s perception, the experience of an artwork and the possible interpretations of the artwork. For him, aesthetics was not a sub-field of philosophy, and art was not simply a subject matter for the aesthetic experience, but a form of thinking. This study proposes an opening for a dialogue between Merleau-Pontian phenomenology and contemporary art. The thesis examines his phenomenology through certain works of contemporary art and presents readings of these artworks through his phenomenology. The thesis both shows the potentiality of a method, but also engages in the critical task of finding the possible limitations of his approach. The first part lays out the methodological and conceptual points of departure of Merleau-Ponty s phenomenological approach to perception as well as the features that determined his discussion on encountering art. Merleau-Ponty referred to the experience of perceiving art using the notion of seeing with (voir selon). He stressed a correlative reciprocity described in Eye and Mind (1961) as the switching of the roles of the visible and the painter. The choice of artworks is motivated by certain restrictions in the phenomenological readings of visual arts. The examined works include paintings by Tiina Mielonen, a photographic work by Christian Mayer, a film by Douglas Gordon and Philippe Parreno, and an installation by Monika Sosnowska. These works resonate with, and challenge, his phenomenological approach. The chapters with case studies take up different themes that are central to Merleau-Ponty s phenomenology: space, movement, time, and touch. All of the themes are interlinked with the examined artworks. There are also topics that reappear in the thesis, such as the notion of écart and the question of encountering the other. As Merleau-Ponty argued, the sphere of art has a particular capability to address our being in the world. The thesis presents an interpretation that emphasises the notion of écart, which refers to an experience of divergence or dispossession. The sudden dissociation, surprise or rupture that is needed in order for a meeting between the spectator and the artwork, or between two persons, to be possible. Further, the thesis suggests that through artworks it is possible to take into consideration the écart, the divergence, that defines our subjectivity.