7 resultados para Muslim Brotherhood Arab Spring

em Helda - Digital Repository of University of Helsinki


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Nitrogen (N) is one of the main inputs in cereal cultivation and as more than half of the arable land in Finland is used for cereal production, N has contributed substantially to agricultural pollution through fertilizer leaching and runoff. Based on this global phenomenon, the European Community has launched several directives to reduce agricultural emissions to the environment. Trough such measures, and by using economic incentives, it is expected that northern European agricultural practices will, in the future, include reduced N fertilizer application rates. Reduced use of N fertilizer is likely to decrease both production costs and pollution, but could also result in reduced yields and quality if crops experience temporary N deficiency. Therefore, more efficient N use in cereal production, to minimize pollution risks and maximize farmer income, represents a current challenge for agronomic research in the northern growing areas. The main objective of this study was to determine the differences in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) among spring cereals grown in Finland. Additional aims were to characterize the multiple roles of NUE by analysing the extent of variation in NUE and its component traits among different cultivars, and to understand how other physiological traits, especially radiation use efficiency (RUE) and light interception, affect and interact with the main components of NUE and contribute to differences among cultivars. This study included cultivars of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oat (Avena sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Field experiments were conducted between 2001 and 2004 at Jokioinen, in Finland. To determine differences in NUE among cultivars and gauge the achievements of plant breeding in NUE, 17-18 cultivars of each of the three cereal species released between 1909 and 2002 were studied. Responses to nitrogen of landraces, old cultivars and modern cultivars of each cereal species were evaluated under two N regimes (0 and 90 kg N ha-1). Results of the study revealed that modern wheat, oat and barley cultivars had similar NUE values under Finnish growing conditions and only results from a wider range of cultivars indicated that wheat cultivars could have lower NUE than the other species. There was a clear relationship between nitrogen uptake efficiency (UPE) and NUE in all species whereas nitrogen utilization efficiency (UTE) had a strong positive relationship with NUE only for oat. UTE was clearly lower in wheat than in other species. Other traits related to N translocation indicated that wheat also had a lower harvest index, nitrogen harvest index and nitrogen remobilisation efficiency and therefore its N translocation efficiency was confirmed to be very low. On the basis of these results there appears to be potential and also a need for improvement in NUE. These results may help understand the underlying physiological differences in NUE and could help to identify alternative production options, such as the different roles that species can play in crop rotations designed to meet the demands of modern agricultural practices.

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Disadvantages of invariable cereal cropping, concern of nutrient leaching and prices of nitrogen (N) fertilizer have all increased during last decades. An undersown crop, which grows together with a main crop and after harvest, could mitigate all those questions. The aim of this study was to develop undersowing in Finnish conditions, so that it suits for spring cereal farming as well as possible and enhances taking care of soil and environment, especially when control of N is concerned. In total, 17 plant species were undersown in spring cereals during the field experiments between 1991-1999 at four sites in South and Central Finland, but after selection, eight of them were studied more thoroughly. Two legumes, one grass species and one mixture of them were included in long-term trials in order to study annually repeated undersowing. Further, simultaneous broadcasting of seeds instead of separate undersowing was studied. Grain yield response and the capacity of the undersown crop to absorb soil N or fix N from atmosphere, and the release of N were of greatest interest. Seeding rates of undersown crops and N fertilization rates during annually repeated undersowing were also studied. Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam., IR) absorbed soil nitrate N (NO3-N) most efficiently in autumn and timothy (Phleum pratense L.) in spring. The capacity of other grass species to absorb N was low, or it was insufficient considering the negative effect on grain yield. Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.) suited well in annually repeated undersowing, supplying fixed N for cereals without markedly increased risk of N leaching. Autumn oriented growth rhythm of the studied legumes was optimal for undersowing, whereas the growth rhythm of grasses was less suited but varied between species. A model of adaptive undersowing system was outlined in order to emphasize allocation of measures according needs. After defining the goal of undersowing, many decisions are to be done. When diminishing N leaching is primarily sought, a mixture of IR and timothy is advantageous. Clovers suit for replacing N fertilization, as the positive residual effect is greater than the negative effect caused by competition. A mixture of legume and non legume is a good choice when increased diversity is the main target. Seeding rate is an efficient means for adjusting competition and N effects. Broadcasting with soil covering equipment can be used to establish an undersown crop. In addition, timing and method of cover crop termination have an important role in the outcome. Continuous observing of the system is needed as for instance conditions significantly affect growth of undersown crop and on the other hand N release from crop residues may increase in long run.

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This study describes and analyses two Lebanese Muslims and two Lebanese Christians ideas about Christian-Muslim dialogue, its nature, aims, and methods and its different dimensions, which include doctrinal, ethical, and social dimensions. On the basis of the analysis, the four thinkers contributions for promoting constructive dialogue are evaluated. The persons studied are two religious authorities, the Shiite Great Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah (b. 1935) and the Eastern Orthodox Metropolitan of Mount Lebanon, Georges Khodr (b. 1923), and two academic scholars, Doctor Mahmoud Ayoub (b. 1935) and Doctor, Father Mouchir Aoun (b. 1964), from the Shiite and Greek Catholic communities, respectively. The method of the study is systematic analysis. The sources consist of the four thinkers writings on Christian-Muslim relations, the most of which have been published in Lebanon in the 1990s and 2000s in the Arabic language. In their general guidelines for Christian-Muslim dialogue, the four authors do not offer any novel or unusual insights. However, their dialogue visions are multi-faceted, motivating interreligious encounter both on religious and practical grounds and clarifying the theological grounds and socio-political conditions of this endeavour. The major challenge appears to be the tension between loyalty to one s own convictions and taking into account the particular self-understanding of the other. While this tension may be ultimately unsolvable, it is obvious that linking dialogue tightly to missionary motivations or certain theological agenda imposed on the others is not conducive for better mutual understanding. As for how diverse theologies of religions affect interreligious dialogue, narrow exclusivism hardly promotes mutual knowledge and appreciation, but also inclusive and pluralistic positions have their particular dilemmas. In the end, dialogue is possible from diverse positions on theology of religions. All the authors discuss the theological themes of divine revelation, concept of God, and human condition and ultimate destiny. The two religions particular views on these issues cannot be reconciled, but the authors offer diverse means to facilitate mutual understanding on them, such as increasing mutual knowledge, questioning certain traditional condemnations, showing theological parallels between the two religions, and transcending doctrinal disagreements by stressing common religious experience or ethical concerns. Among the theological themes, especially the concept of God seems to offer possibilities for better understanding than has traditionally been the case. Significantly, all the four authors maintain that Christians and Muslims share the faith in the one God, irrespective of their disagreements about the nature of his oneness. Basic ethical principles are not discussed as widely by the four authors as might be expected, which may reflect the shared cultural background and common ethical values of the Lebanese Muslims and Christians. On this level, Christians alienation from the Islamic law appears as the most significant challenge to mutual understanding, while neighbourly love and the golden rule of ethics offer a fruitful basis for further dialogue. As for the issue of political power-sharing in Lebanon, it is clear that the proposal of an Islamic state is problematic in a country with a sizable Christian minority and a heterogeneous Muslim population. Some form of democracy seems more viable for a multireligious country, but the question remains how to retain religion as a vital force in society, which is felt to be important by all the four Lebanese authors.

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Hip-hopin juuret juontavat 1970-luvulle Yhdysvaltoihin, mutta hip-hop-kulttuuri ja musiikkityyli ovat sen jälkeen levinneet ympäri maailmaa osana globalisaatiokehitystä. Myös monet nuoret muslimit tekevät nykyään hip-hop-musiikkia, ja yhä useampi tuo myös sanoituksiinsa vaikutteita Islamista ja elämästään muslimina. Musiikin asema on islamissa varsin kiistelty, eikä sitä ole selvästi sallittu (halal) tai kielletty (haram) muslimeilta. Muslimien tekemää hip-hoppia on toistaiseksi tutkittu hyvin vähän. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan diskurssianalyysin keinoin, miten tapaustutkimuksena toimivalla muslimhiphop.com-internetsivustolla argumentoidaan ja konstruoidaan käsityksiä muslimi-identiteetistä. Teoreettisena ja analyyttisenä viitekehyksenä toimii sosiaalikonstruktivistinen näkemys identiteetistä kontekstisidonnaisena sekä puheessa ja teksteissä diskursiivisesti rakentuvana. Tutkielma kyseenalaistaa aiempien tutkimusten oletuksen hip-hopista vaikutuksiltaan yksinomaan positiivisena muslimi-identiteetille sekä muslimeja yhdentävänä tekijänä. Aineisto on kerätty edellä mainitulta sivustolta syksyn 2010 ja kevään 2011 aikana, josta analyysiin on rajattu vain itse sivusto ja sen hip-hoppia käsittelevät osiot. Sivusto ja sen perustaja ovat yhdysvaltalaisia, mutta sivustolla esiteltävien artistien tausta on hyvin monikulttuurinen. Moni on myös maahanmuuttajana nykyisessä kotimaassaan. Aineistossa esiintyviä teemoja ja diskursseja eritellään ja analysoidaan tutkielmassa lainauksien avulla. Sivuston periaatteissa ja artistien esillepääsyn kriteereissä määritellään tarkasti asennoituminen Islamin ja musiikin yhdistämiseen: mikäli sanoitukset ja artistit noudattavat Islamin oppeja, on muslimin sallittua tehdä ja kuunnella tällaista musiikkia. Islam-aiheisen hip-hopin perustellaan olevan ennen kaikkea vaihtoehto valtavirran hip-hopille, jota konstruoidaan aineistossa moraalisesti arveluttavaksi. Hip-hopille sekä muslimeille sallittuja ja kiellettyjä elementtejä erottelevan halal-haram-diskurssin ohella aineistosta nousee esiin opetusdiskurssi. Muslimien tekemän hip-hopin perustellaan edistävän Islamin opettamista erityisesti nuorille muslimeille ja siten vahvistavan positiivista muslimi-identiteettiä. Myös positiivisen muutoksen diskurssia käytetään aineistossa runsaasti liittyen mm. muslimiyhteisöihin sekä muslimeihin kohdistuviin taloudellisiin ja sosiaalipoliittisiin epäkohtiin ja stereotypioihin; musiikin sisältöä ja sen tekemistä perustellaan sen voimalla muuttaa asioita parempaan suuntaan. Monet muslimiartistit kamppailevat yhdistääkseen toisaalta Islamin ja taiteellisen luovuuden ja ilmaisuvapauden, toisaalta menestyäkseen kaupallisesti unohtamatta uskonnollista vakaumustaan. Monilla heistä hip-hop on ollut vahvasti läsnä kasvuympäristössä, mutta sen yhdistäminen Islamin periaatteisiin aiheuttaa kysymyksiä ja kyseenalaistuksia oman musiikillisen ja uskonnollisen identiteetin muodosta ja sisällöstä. Aineiston perusteella monet muslimiartistit ja Islam-aiheista hip-hoppia kuuntelevat muslimit joutuvat jatkuvasti puolustamaan musiikkia siihen kielteisesti suhtautuville muslimeille sekä ei-muslimeille, jotka vierastavat sen uskonnollisuutta. Muslimi-identiteettiä neuvotellaan jatkuvasti, ja se näyttäytyy aineistossa moniulotteisena ja tilanteisesti rakentuvana. Avainsanat: Muslimit, Islam, hip-hop, identiteetti, Internet, diskurssi, diskurssianalyysi