Lypsylehmien sorkkasairauksien perinnölliset tunnusluvut

Sorkkasairaudet ovat kasvava ongelma lypsykarjatiloilla. Sorkka- ja jalkaviat aiheuttavat ennenaikaisten poistojen lisäksi taloudellisia tappioita alentamalla maitotuotosta ja lisäämällä eläinlääkintä- ja sorkkahoitokuluja. Tämän työn tavoitteena oli tutkia sorkkasairauksien periytyvyyttä ja sorkkasairauksiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Tutkimusaineisto saatiin Terveet Sorkat -ohjelmasta, johon liittyminen on vapaaehtoista. Sorkkahoitajat olivat luokitelleet sorkkasairaudet vuosina 2003 2004. Sorkkasairaudet (vertymät anturassa, krooninen sorkkakuume, valkoviivan repeämä, anturahaavauma, sorkkavälin ihotulehdus, kantasyöpymä, sorkka-alueen ihotulehdus ja sorkkakiertymä ja muut sorkkasairaudet) oli luokiteltu aineistossa kaksiluokkaisina (kyllä/ei) ominaisuuksina. Aineiston esikäsittelyyn, alustaviin analyyseihin ja kiinteiden tekijöiden tilastollisen merkitsevyyden testaamiseen F-testillä käytettiin WSYS-ohjelmistoa. Lisäksi kiinteiden tekijöiden merkitsevyyttä testattiin logit-mallilla SAS-ohjelmistolla. Varianssikomponentit laskettiin Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML)-menetelmällä VCE4-ohjelmistolla. Toistuvuuseläinmallilla saatiin seuraavia periytymisasteen arvioita: vertymät anturassa 0,05, valkoviivan repeämä 0,04, sorkkakiertymä 0,05, kantasyöpymä 0,01, anturahaavauma 0,03 ja sorkkasairaudet yhtenä ominaisuutena 0,06. Sorkkasairauksien periytymisasteiden arviot muutettuna sorkkasairausalttiuksien periytymisasteiksi olivat: vertymät anturassa 0,11, valkoviivan repeämä 0,12, sorkkakiertymä 0,15, kantasyöpymä 0,03, anturahaavauma 0,17 ja sorkkasairaudet yhtenä ominaisuutena 0,09. Sorkkasairauksien väliset geneettiset korrelaatiot olivat positiivisia lukuun ottamatta valkoviivan repeämän ja kantasyöpymän välistä geneettistä korrelaatiota, joka oli lievästi negatiivinen. Sorkkasairauksien geneettiset korrelaatiot 305 päivän maitotuotokseen olivat -0,20 0,27. Tämän tutkimuksen ja aiempien tutkimusten perusteella perimän osuus sorkkasairauksiin ei ole kovin suuri. Koska ympäristötekijöillä on suuri merkitys sorkkasairauksien esiintymiseen, sorkkasairauksien ennaltaehkäisyssä tulisi kiinnittää erityistä huomiota navetan olosuhteisiin, säännölliseen sorkkahoitoon ja oikeaan ruokintaan.

Land leasing, land degradation and agricultural productivity in Finland

This study analysed whether the land tenure insecurity problem has led to a decline in long-term land improvements (liming and phosphorus fertilization) under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Nordic production conditions in European Union (EU) countries such as Finland. The results suggests that under traditional cash lease contracts, which are encouraged by the existing land leasing regulations and agricultural subsidy programs, the land tenure insecurity problem on leased land reduces land improvements that have a long pay-back period. In particular, soil pH was found to be significantly lower on land cultivated under a lease contract compared to land owned by the farmers themselves. The results also indicate that land improvements could not be reversed by land markets, because land owners would otherwise have carried out land improvements even if not farming by themselves. To reveal the causality between land tenure and land improvements, the dynamic optimisation problem was solved by a stochastic dynamic programming routine with known parameters for one-period returns and transition equations. The model parameters represented Finnish soil quality and production conditions. The decision rules were solved for alternative likelihood scenarios over the continuation of the fixed-term lease contract. The results suggest that as the probability of non-renewal of the lease contract increases, farmers quickly reduce investments in irreversible land improvements and, thereafter, yields gradually decline. The simulations highlighted the observed trends of a decline in land improvements on land parcels that are cultivated under lease contracts. Land tenure has resulted in the neglect of land improvement in Finland. This study aimed to analyze whether these challenges could be resolved by a tax policy that encourages land sales. Using Finnish data, real estate tax and a temporal relaxation on the taxation of capital gains showed some potential for the restructuring of land ownership. Potential sellers who could not be revealed by traditional logit models were identified with the latent class approach. Those landowners with an intention to sell even without a policy change were sensitive to temporal relaxation in the taxation of capital gains. In the long term, productivity and especially productivity growth are necessary conditions for the survival of farms and the food industry in Finland. Technical progress was found to drive the increase in productivity. The scale had only a moderate effect and for the whole study period (1976–2006) the effect was close to zero. Total factor productivity (TFP) increased, depending on the model, by 0.6–1.7% per year. The results demonstrated that the increase in productivity was hindered by the policy changes introduced in 1995. It is also evidenced that the increase in land leasing is connected to these policy changes. Land institutions and land tenure questions are essential in agricultural and rural policies on all levels, from local to international. Land ownership and land titles are commonly tied to fundamental political, economic and social questions. A fair resolution calls for innovative and new solutions both on national and international levels. However, this seems to be a problem when considering the application of EU regulations to member states inheriting divergent landownership structures and farming cultures. The contribution of this study is in describing the consequences of fitting EU agricultural policy to Finnish agricultural land tenure conditions and heritage.

Valuation of reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland : Choice experiment with attention to heterogeneous and discontinuous preferences and respondent uncertainty

Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea is a serious problem. This thesis estimates the benefit to Finns from reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland, the most eutrophied part of the Baltic Sea, by applying the choice experiment method, which belongs to the family of stated preference methods. Because stated preference methods have been subject to criticism, e.g., due to their hypothetical survey context, this thesis contributes to the discussion by studying two anomalies that may lead to biased welfare estimates: respondent uncertainty and preference discontinuity. The former refers to the difficulty of stating one s preferences for an environmental good in a hypothetical context. The latter implies a departure from the continuity assumption of conventional consumer theory, which forms the basis for the method and the analysis. In the three essays of the thesis, discrete choice data are analyzed with the multinomial logit and mixed logit models. On average, Finns are willing to contribute to the water quality improvement. The probability for willingness increases with residential or recreational contact with the gulf, higher than average income, younger than average age, and the absence of dependent children in the household. On average, for Finns the relatively most important characteristic of water quality is water clarity followed by the desire for fewer occurrences of blue-green algae. For future nutrient reduction scenarios, the annual mean household willingness to pay estimates range from 271 to 448 and the aggregate welfare estimates for Finns range from 28 billion to 54 billion euros, depending on the model and the intensity of the reduction. Out of the respondents (N=726), 72.1% state in a follow-up question that they are either Certain or Quite certain about their answer when choosing the preferred alternative in the experiment. Based on the analysis of other follow-up questions and another sample (N=307), 10.4% of the respondents are identified as potentially having discontinuous preferences. In relation to both anomalies, the respondent- and questionnaire-specific variables are found among the underlying causes and a departure from standard analysis may improve the model fit and the efficiency of estimates, depending on the chosen modeling approach. The introduction of uncertainty about the future state of the Gulf increases the acceptance of the valuation scenario which may indicate an increased credibility of a proposed scenario. In conclusion, modeling preference heterogeneity is an essential part of the analysis of discrete choice data. The results regarding uncertainty in stating one s preferences and non-standard choice behavior are promising: accounting for these anomalies in the analysis may improve the precision of the estimates of benefit from reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland.

Key Factors Influencing Economic Relationships and Communication in Finnish Food Chains

The aim of this report is to discuss the role of the relationship type and communication in two Finnish food chains, namely the pig meat-to-sausage (pig meat chain) and the cereal-to-rye bread (rye chain) chains. Furthermore, the objective is to examine those factors influencing the choice of a relationship type and the sustainability of a business relationship. Altogether 1808 questionnaires were sent to producers, processors and retailers operating in these two chains of which 224 usable questionnaires were returned (the response rate being 12.4%). The great majority of the respondents (98.7%) were small businesses employing less than 50 people. Almost 70 per cent of the respondents were farmers. In both chains, formal contracts were stated to be the most important relationship type used with business partners. Although for many businesses written contracts are a common business practice, the essential role of the contracts was the security they provide regarding the demand/supply and quality issues. Relative to the choice of the relationship types, the main difference between the two chains emerged especially with the prevalence of spot markets and financial participation arrangements. The usage of spot markets was significantly more common in the rye chain when compared to the pig meat chain, while, on the other hand, financial participation arrangements were much more common among the businesses in the pig meat chain than in the rye chain. Furthermore, the analysis showed that most of the businesses in the pig meat chain claimed not to be free to choose the relationship type they use. Especially membership in a co-operative and practices of a business partner were mentioned as the reasons limiting this freedom of choice. The main business relations in both chains were described as having a long-term orientation and being based on formal written contracts. Typical for the main business relationships was also that they are not based on the existence of the key persons only; the relationship would remain even if the key people left the business. The quality of these relationships was satisfactory in both chains and across all the stakeholder groups, though the downstream processors and the retailers had a slightly more positive view on their main business partners than the farmers and the upstream processors. The businesses operating in the pig meat chain seemed also to be more dependent on their main business relations when compared to the businesses in the rye chain. Although the communication means were rather similar in both chains (the phone being the most important), there was some variation between the chains concerning the communication frequency necessary to maintain the relationship with the main business partner. In short, the businesses in the pig meat chain seemed to appreciate more frequent communication with their main business partners when compared to the businesses in the rye chain. Personal meetings with the main business partners were quite rare in both chains. All the respondent groups were, however, fairly satisfied with the communication frequency and information quality between them and the main business partner. The business cultures could be argued to be rather hegemonic among the businesses both in the pig meat and rye chains. Avoidance of uncertainty, appreciation of long-term orientation and independence were considered important factors in the business cultures. Furthermore, trust, commitment and satisfaction in business partners were thought to be essential elements of business operations in all the respondent groups. In order to investigate which factors have an effect on the choice of a relationship type, several hypotheses were tested by using binary and multinomial logit analyses. According to these analyses it could be argued that avoidance of uncertainty and risk has a certain effect on the relationship type chosen, i.e. the willingness to avoid uncertainty increases the probability to choose stable relationships, like repeated market transactions and formal written contracts, but not necessary those, which require high financial commitment (like financial participation arrangements). The probability of engaging in financial participation arrangements seemed to increase with long-term orientation. The hypotheses concerning the sustainability of the economic relations were tested by using structural equation model (SEM). In the model, five variables were found to have a positive and statistically significant impact on the sustainable economic relationship construct. Ordered relative to their importance, those factors are: (i) communication quality, (ii) personal bonds, (iii) equal power distribution, (iv) local embeddedness and (v) competition.

Pellonomistajien näkemyksiä tilusjärjestelyiden tarpeellisuudesta

Maataloudessa on menossa rakennekehitys, jonka seurauksena tilojen määrä vähenee, mutta tuotannossa olevan pellon määrä ei kuitenkaan laske. Aktiivitilojen kasvu perustuu ennestään pieniin lohkoihin, jotka ovat etäällä toisistaan. Epäedullinen tilusrakenne vaikeuttaa olennaisesti tuotantoaan kehittävien aktiivitilojen tuottavuuskehitystä ja kannattavuustavoitteiden saavuttamista. Tilusjärjestelyiden tavoitteena on järjestää pellonomistajien pirstoutuneita tiluksia isoimmiksi lohkoiksi ja näin edesauttaa parempaan tilusrakenteeseen. Tilusjärjestely tehdään aina pellonomistajien pyynnöstä ja yhteistyössä maanmittaustoimiston kanssa. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on koota aineisto, jonka avulla voitiin arvioida pellonomistajien asenteita pellon tilusjärjestelyitä kohtaan. Tutkimuksessa sekä kuvattiin että mallinnettiin pellonomistajien tietoisuutta ja asenteita liittyen tilusjärjestelyiden tarpeellisuuteen. Erityisesti huomiota kiinnitettiin tekijöihin, jotka selittivät pellonomistajien myönteisiä ja kielteisiä asenteita pellon tilusjärjestelyitä kohtaan. Tutkimusaineistona käytettiin rekisteriaineistoa sekä postikyselyaineistoa, joka on MTT Taloustutkimuksen toimesta yhdistetty yhdeksi suureksi Suomalainen pellonomistaja-aineistoksi. Lähtökohtana mallintamiseen käytettiin Suomalainen pellonomistaja aineistosta saatavia pellonomistajaa kuvaavia tekijöitä, jotka korreloivat tilusjärjestelyhalukkuuden kanssa. Mallintamiseen käytettiin logit-mallia. Tutkimuksen kannalta tärkein tulos oli, että isojen tilojen omistajat olivat tietoisempia pellon tilusjärjestelyistä kuin pienten tilojen omistajat. Pienemmissä tilasuuruusluokissa pellonomistus liittyy usein harrastusviljelyyn sekä pellon poisvuokraukseen. Maa- ja metsätalousyrittäjät olivat tietoisimpia tilusjärjestelyistä kuin eläkeläiset ja palkansaajat. Suurin osa pelloista on sellaisten pellonomistajien omistuksessa, jotka eivät itse määrittele itseään viljelijöiksi. Tämän kehityssuunnan oletetaan jatkuvan, joten pellonomistajien tilusjärjestelytietoisuuden voidaan olettaa heikkenevän tulevaisuudessa. Pellonomistajien asenteet pellon tilusjärjestelyihin eivät ole homogeeniset. Tutkimuksessa selvisi uutena tietona se, että maataloustuloa painottavat pellonomistajat ja maataloutta edistävät tilat suhtautuivat tilusjärjestelyyn myönteisemmin kuin muut.

Using a botanic garden collection to test a bioclimatic vegetation scheme

Vegetation maps and bioclimatic zone classifications communicate the vegetation of an area and are used to explain how the environment regulates the occurrence of plants on large scales. Many practises and methods for dividing the world’s vegetation into smaller entities have been presented. Climatic parameters, floristic characteristics, or edaphic features have been relied upon as decisive factors, and plant species have been used as indicators for vegetation types or zones. Systems depicting vegetation patterns that mainly reflect climatic variation are termed ‘bioclimatic’ vegetation maps. Based on these it has been judged logical to deduce that plants moved between corresponding bioclimatic areas should thrive in the target location, whereas plants moved from a different zone should languish. This principle is routinely applied in forestry and horticulture but actual tests of the validity of bioclimatic maps in this sense seem scanty. In this study I tested the Finnish bioclimatic vegetation zone system (BZS). Relying on the plant collection of Helsinki University Botanic Garden’s Kumpula collection, which according to the BZS is situated at the northern limit of the hemiboreal zone, I aimed to test how the plants’ survival depends on their provenance. My expectation was that plants from the hemiboreal or southern boreal zones should do best in Kumpula, whereas plants from more southern and more northern zones should show progressively lower survival probabilities. I estimated probability of survival using collection database information of plant accessions of known wild origin grown in Kumpula since the mid 1990s, and logistic regression models. The total number of accessions I included in the analyses was 494. Because of problems with some accessions I chose to separately analyse a subset of the complete data, which included 379 accessions. I also analysed different growth forms separately in order to identify differences in probability of survival due to different life strategies. In most analyses accessions of temperate and hemiarctic origin showed lower survival probability than those originating from any of the boreal subzones, which among them exhibited rather evenly high probabilities. Exceptionally mild and wet winters during the study period may have killed off hemiarctic plants. Some winters may have been too harsh for temperate accessions. Trees behaved differently: they showed an almost steadily increasing survival probability from temperate to northern boreal origins. Various factors that could not be controlled for may have affected the results, some of which were difficult to interpret. This was the case in particular with herbs, for which the reliability of the analysis suffered because of difficulties in managing their curatorial data. In all, the results gave some support to the BZS, and especially its hierarchical zonation. However, I question the validity of the formulation of the hypothesis I tested since it may not be entirely justified by the BZS, which was designed for intercontinental comparison of vegetation zones, but not specifically for transcontinental provenance trials. I conclude that botanic gardens should pay due attention to information management and curational practices to ensure the widest possible applicability of their plant collections.

Factors affecting partitioning of private forest holdings in Finland.

Questions of the small size of non-industrial private forest (NIPF) holdings in Finland are considered and factors affecting their partitioning are analyzed. This work arises out of Finnish forest policy statements in which the small average size of holdings has been seen to have a negative influence on the economics of forestry. A survey of the literature indicates that the size of holdings is an important factor determining the costs of logging and silvicultural operations, while its influence on the timber supply is slight. The empirical data are based on a sample of 314 holdings collected by interviewing forest owners in the years 1980-86. In 1990-91 the same holdings were resurveyed by means of a postal inquiry and partly by interviewing forest owners. The principal objective in compiling the data is to assist in quantifying ownership factors that influence partitioning among different kinds of NIPF holdings. Thus the mechanism of partitioning were described and a maximum likelihood logistic regression model was constructed using seven independent holding and ownership variables. One out of four holdings had undergone partitioning in conjunction with a change in ownership, one fifth among family owned holdings and nearly a half among jointly owned holdings. The results of the logistic regression model indicate, for instance, that the odds on partitioning is about three times greater for jointly owned holdings than for family owned ones. Also, the probabilities of partitioning were estimated and the impact of independent dichotomous variables on the probability of partitioning ranged between 0.02 and 0.10. The low value of the Hosmer-Lemeshow test statistic indicates a good fit of the model and the rate of correct classification was estimated to be 88 per cent with a cutoff point of 0.5. The average size of holdings undergoing ownership changes decreased from 29.9 ha to 28.7 ha over the approximate interval 1983-90. In addition, the transition probability matrix showed that the trends towards smaller size categories mostly involved in the small size categories, less than 20 ha. The results of the study can be used in considering the effects of the small size of holdings for forestry and if the purpose is to influence partitioning through forest or rural policy.

Lähiruokavalikoiman vaikutus vähittäiskaupan asiakasuskollisuuteen

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tutkia vähittäiskaupan lähiruokavalikoiman ja asiakasuskollisuuden yhteyttä. Elintarvikemarkkinoilla kilpailijoista erilaistettuja toimintamalleja tulee kehittää kohdemarkkinoiden muutokset huomioiden. Yhteiskunnalliset muutokset ja kasvava kuluttajakysyntä osoittavat lähiruokamarkkinan kasvupotentiaalia. Lähiruokamarkkinoiden ollessa elinkaarensa alkuvaiheessa voi lähiruoka toimintamallin kehittäminen mahdollistaa vähittäiskauppaympäristön erilaistamisen ja valikoimien kehittämisen asiakasuskollisuuden parantamiseksi sekä kilpailukyvyn säilyttämiseksi. Tutkimuksen teoriaosassa tarkastellaan lähiruokajärjestelmää elintarvikemarkkinoiden kontekstista ja vähittäiskaupan näkökulmasta. Asiakasuskollisuutta tarkastellaan aikaisempien määritelmien pohjalta ja liiketoiminnallisesta näkökulmasta. Tutkimuksen empiriaosan vaatimukset huomioiden keskityttiin erityisesti käyttäytymispohjaisen asiakasuskollisuuden teoriapohjaan. Tutkimuksen empiriaosassa lähiruokavalikoiman vaikutus asiakasuskollisuuteen rajattiin koskemaan leipäosaston valikoimarakennetta. Tutkimuksessa myymäläkohtaisen asiakasuskollisuuden mittaamisen mahdollistaa yhteistyöyrityksen asiakastietokannan talouskohtaiset ostohistoriatiedot, jotka perustuvat ostotapahtuman yhteydessä käytettyyn kanta-asiakaskorttiin. Lähileipävalikoimarakennetta ja asiakasuskollisuutta tarkasteltiin 39 myymälän aineistolla syysmarraskuun 2010 tarkastelujaksolla. Myymäläkohtaiset kyselylomaketiedot valikoimarakenteesta ja asiakastietokantatiedot mahdollistavat kvantitatiivisen tutkimusotteen hyödyntämisen. Pääanalyysin tilastollisena menetelmänä käytettiin Logit-mallia. Logit-malli mahdollisti myymäläkohtaisen asiakasluokka- ja leipävalikoimarakenteen riippuvuuden analysoinnin. Tutkimuksen pääanalyysin tuloksien perusteella myymälän pääostopaikka-asiakkaista uskollisten asiakkaiden osuus kasvaa, mutta myös täydennysostopaikka-asiakkaiden osuus asioineista talouksista lisääntyy lähileipävalikoiman suhteellisen osuuden kasvaessa. Lisäksi uskollisten asiakasryhmien tarkempi analyysi osoitti, että myymälän lähileipävalikoimaosuuden ja myymälän avainasiakasosuuden välillä ilmeni positiivinen yhteys. Tutkimustuloksia voidaan pitää kaupallisesti mielenkiintoisina ja tulosten taustalla vaikuttavat tekijät sekä liiketoiminnalliset mahdollisuudet vaativat jatkotutkimusta.