Devolution of forest-related rights: Comparative analyses of six developing countries

The study focused on the different ways that forest-related rights can be devolved to the local level according to the current legal frameworks in Laos, Nepal, Vietnam, Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania. The eleven case studies represented the main ways in which forest-related rights can be devolved to communities or households in these countries. The objectives of this study were to 1) analyse the contents and extent of forest-related rights that can be devolved to the local level, 2) develop an empirical typology that represents the main types of devolution, and 3) compare the cases against a theoretical ideal type to assess in what way and to what extent the cases are similar to or differ from the theoretical construct. Fuzzy set theory, Qualitative Comparative Analysis and ideal type analysis were used in analysing the case studies and in developing an empirical typology. The theoretical framework, which guided data collection and analyses, was based on institutional economics and theories on property rights, common pool resources and collective action. On the basis of the theoretical and empirical knowledge, the most important attributes of rights were defined as use rights, management rights, exclusion rights, transfer rights and the duration and security of the rights. The ideal type was defined as one where local actors have been devolved comprehensive use rights, extensive management rights, rights to exclude others from the resource and rights to transfer these rights. In addition, the rights are to be secure and held perpetually. The ideal type was used to structure the analysis and as a tool against which the cases were analysed. The contents, extent and duration of the devolved rights varied greatly. In general, the results show that devolution has mainly meant the transfer of use rights to the local level, and has not really changed the overall state control over forest resources. In most cases the right holders participate, or have a limited role in the decision making regarding the harvesting and management of the resource. There was a clear tendency to devolve the rights to enforce rules and to monitor resource use and condition more extensively than the powers to decide on the management and development of the resource. The empirical typology of the cases differentiated between five different types of devolution. The types can be characterised by the devolution of 1) restricted use and control rights, 2) extensive use rights but restricted control rights, 3) extensive rights, 4) insecure, short term use and restricted control rights, and 5) insecure extensive rights. Overall, the case studies conformity to the ideal type was very low: only two cases were similar to the ideal type, all other cases differed considerably from the ideal type. The restricted management rights were the most common reason for the low conformity to the ideal type (eight cases). In three cases, the short term of the rights, restricted transfer rights, restricted use rights or restricted exclusion rights were the reason or one of the reasons for the low conformity to the ideal type. In two cases the rights were not secure.

Leskien ja orpojen muuttuva asema luo- ja kisii-yhteisöissä Länsi-Keniassa

Tutkielma käsittelee naisleskien ja orpojen elämää luo- ja kisii-yhteisöissä Länsi-Kenian maaseudulla. Tarkoituksena on selvittää, kuinka yhteiskunnassa tapahtuvat taloudelliset ja sosiaaliset muutokset ovat vaikuttaneet orpojen ja leskien asemaan patriarkaalisissa yhteisöissä. Tutkielma pyrkii osoittamaan paikallistason muutosten kulttuurisidonnaisuuden erilaisia muutosteemoja tarkastelemalla. Erityisesti on tarkasteltu aids-epidemian ja maapulan vaikutuksia leskien ja orpojen lähisuhteisiin, maankäyttöoikeuksiin ja luojen leviraattisuhteeseen. Tutkielman aineisto koostuu kahden kuukauden kenttätyöjakson aikana tehdyistä haastatteluista ja osallistuvasta havainnoinnista. Kenttätyö on tehty Suomen Luterilaisen Evankeliumiyhdistyksen ja Kenian Evangelic Lutheran Churchin orpotyöprojektin yhteydessä syksyllä 2007. Aids-epidemian myötä huollettavien määrä maaseutuyhteisöissä on kasvanut. Samanaikaisesti on havaittu, että sukulaisten muodostama turvaverkko on heikentynyt. Turvaverkon heikentyminen liittyy resurssipulaan ja arvojen muutokseen. Lesket ja orvot ovat vaarassa jäädä ilman tarvitsemaansa tukea ja apua. Kisiiden ja luojen sukulaisuusjärjestelmässä naisilla ei ole siskon tai tyttären rooliin liittyviä oikeuksia. Tutkielmasta käy ilmi, että leskien ja orpojen häätäminen kotitiloilta on yleistä, vaikka perinteisesti heidän asemansa maankäyttäjänä on ollut turvattu. Luo-leski saatetaan häätää myös hänen kieltäytyessään leviraattisuhteesta. Häätöjen keskeinen motiivi on saada lesken käytössä ollut maapala miesvainajan sukulaisten haltuun. Häädetyt lesket rinnastuvat Thomas Håkanssonin tutkimiin avoliitosta häädettyihin kisii-naisiin, joita hän nimittää suvuttomiksi naisiksi. Pekka Seppälän tutkimusta luhyoiden sukupolvenvaihdoksista käytetään maankäyttöoikeuksiin liittyvän analyysin pohjana. Luojen leviraattisuhteessa on tapahtunut merkittäviä muutoksia aids-epidemian aikana. Länsi-Kenian aids-tilanne on muuta maata huonompi. Alueen asukkailla on valistuskampanjoiden ansiosta hyvät tiedot sairaudesta, mutta he toimivat usein tämän tiedon vastaisesti. Tutkielman mukaan keskeisin syy näennäiselle välinpitämättömyydelle on leimautumisen pelko. Aidsiin liittyvä stigma on voimakasta ja sen vuoksi tauti pyritään salaamaan mahdollisimman pitkään. Sukulaismiehet kieltäytyvät usein leskenperijän roolista hiv-tartunnan pelossa. Tämä on luonut kysyntää ammattiperijöille, jotka suorittavat seksuaalisia rituaaleja leskille korvausta vastaan. Tutkielmassa esitellään rituaalisen seksin merkitystä luoille ja todetaan sen olevan tärkein syy leviraattikäytännön jatkumiselle. Luo-leskien perinteistä asemaa tarkastellaan Betty Potashin tutkimusten valossa.

Management of bushland vegetation using rainwater harvesting in eastern Kenya.

Microcatchment water harvesting (MCWH) improved the survival and growth of planted trees on heavy soils in eastern Kenya five to six years after planting. In the best method, the cross-tied furrow microcatchments, the mean annual increments (MAI; based on the average biomass of living trees multiplied by tree density and survival) of the total and usable biomass in Prosopis juliflora were 2787 and 1610 kg ha-1 a-1 respectively, when the initial tree density was 500 to 1667 trees per hectare. Based on survival, the indigenous Acacia horrida, A. mellifera and A. zanzibarica were the most suitable species for planting using MCWH. When both survival and yield were considered, a local seed source of the introduced P. juliflora was superior to all other species. The MAI in MCWH was at best distinctly higher than that in the natural vegetation (163­307 and 66­111 kg ha-1 a-1 for total and usable biomass respectively); this cannot satisfy the fuelwood demand of concentrated populations, such as towns or irrigation schemes. The density of seeds of woody species in the topsoil was 40.1 seeds m-2 in the Acacia-Commiphora bushland and 12.6 seeds m-2 in the zone between the bushland and the Tana riverine forest. Rehabilitation of woody vegetation using the soil seed bank alone proved difficult due to the lack of seeds of desirable species. The regeneration and dynamics of woody vegetation were also studied both in cleared and undisturbed bushland. A sub-type of Acacia-Commiphora bushland was identified as Acacia reficiens bushland, in which the dominant Commiphora species is C. campestris. Most of the woody species did not have even-aged populations but cohort structures that were skewed towards young individuals. The woody vegetation and the status of soil nutrients were estimated to recover in 15­20 years on Vertic Natrargid soils after total removal of above-ground vegetation.

Young Actors in Transnational Agoras : Multi-sited Ethnography of Cosmopolitan Micropolitical Orientations

This study examines young people s political participation in transnational meetings. Methodologically the study aims to shed light on multi-sited global ethnography. Young people are viewed here as a social age group sensitive to critical, alternative and even radical political participation. The diversity of the young actors and their actions is captured by using several different methods. What is more, the study spurs us coming from the Global North to develop social science research towards methodological cosmopolitanism and to consider our research practices from a moral cosmopolitan perspective. The research sites are the EU Presidency Youth Event (2006 Hyvinkää, Finland), the Global Young Greens Founding Conference (2007 Nairobi, Kenya), the European Social Forum (2008 Malmö, Sweden) and three World Social Forums (2006 Bamako, Mali; 2007 Nairobi Kenya and 2009 Belém, Brazil). The data consists of participant observation, documents and media articles of the meetings, interviews, photos, video, and internet data. This multidisciplinary study combines youth research, development studies, performative social science and political sociology. In this research the diverse field of youth political participation in transnational agoras is studied by using a cross-table of cosmopolitan resources (or the lack of them) and everydaymakers expert citizen dichotomy. First, the young participants of the EU Presidency youth event are studied as an example of expert citizens with cosmopolitan resources (these resources include, for example, language skills, higher education and international social network). Second, the study analyses those everyday-makers who use performative politics to demonstrate their political missions here and now. But in order to make the social movement global they need cosmopolitan resources to be able to use the social media tools and work globally. Third, the study reflects upon the difficulties of reaching those actors who lack cosmopolitan resources, either everyday-makers or expert citizens. The go-along method and the use of the interpreters are shown as ways to reach these young people s political missions. Fourth, the research underlines the importance of contact zones (i.e. spaces or situations where the aforementioned orientations and their differences temporarily disappear or weaken) for deeper democracy and for boosted dialogue between different kinds of participants. Keywords: political participation, young people, multi-sited ethnography, youth research, political sociology, development studies, performative social science