Essays in Philosophical Moral Psychology

The dissertation consists of four essays and a comprehensive introduction that discusses the topics, methods, and most prominent theories of philosophical moral psychology. I distinguish three main questions: What are the essential features of moral thinking? What are the psychological conditions of moral responsibility? And finally, what are the consequences of empirical facts about human nature to normative ethics? Each of the three last articles focuses on one of these issues. The first essay and part of the introduction are dedicated to methodological questions, in particular the relationship between empirical (social) psychology and philosophy. I reject recent attempts to understand the nature of morality on the basis of empirical research. One characteristic feature of moral thinking is its practical clout: if we regard an action as morally wrong, we either refrain from doing it even against our desires and interests, or else feel shame or guilt. Moral views seem to have a conceptual connection to motivation and emotions – roughly speaking, we can’t conceive of someone genuinely disapproving an action, but nonetheless doing it without any inner motivational conflict or regret. This conceptual thesis in moral psychology is called (judgment) internalism. It implies, among other things, that psychopaths cannot make moral judgments to the extent that they are incapable of corresponding motivation and emotion, even if they might say largely the words we would expect. Is internalism true? Recently, there has been an explosion of interest in so-called experimental philosophy, which is a methodological view according to which claims about conceptual truths that appeal to our intuitions should be tested by way of surveys presented to ordinary language users. One experimental result is that the majority of people are willing to grant that psychopaths make moral judgments, which challenges internalism. In the first article, ‘The Rise and Fall of Experimental Philosophy’, I argue that these results pose no real threat to internalism, since experimental philosophy is based on a too simple conception of the relationship between language use and concepts. Only the reactions of competent users in pragmatically neutral and otherwise conducive circumstances yield evidence about conceptual truths, and such robust intuitions remain inaccessible to surveys for reasons of principle. The epistemology of folk concepts must still be based on Socratic dialogue and critical reflection, whose character and authority I discuss at the end of the paper. The internal connection between moral judgment and motivation led many metaethicists in the past century to believe along Humean lines that judgment itself consists in a pro-attitude rather than a belief. This expressivist view, as it is called these days, has far-reaching consequences in metaethics. In the second essay I argue that perhaps the most sophisticated form of contemporary expressivism, Allan Gibbard’s norm-expressivism, according to which moral judgments are decisions or contingency plans, is implausible from the perspective of the theory of action. In certain circumstances it is possible to think that something is morally required of one without deciding to do so. Morality is not a matter of the will. Instead, I sketch on the basis of Robert Brandom’s inferentialist semantics a weak form of judgment internalism, according to which the content of moral judgment is determined by a commitment to a particular kind of practical reasoning. The last two essays in the dissertation emphasize the role of mutual recognition in the development and maintenance of responsible and autonomous moral agency. I defend a compatibilist view of autonomy, according to which agents who are unable to recognize right and wrong or act accordingly are not responsible for their actions – it is not fair to praise or blame them, since they lacked the relevant capacity to do otherwise. Conversely, autonomy demands an ability to recognize reasons and act on them. But as a long tradition in German moral philosophy whose best-known contemporary representative is Axel Honneth has it, both being aware of reasons and acting on them requires also the right sort of higher-order attitudes toward the self. Without self-respect and self-confidence we remain at the mercy of external pressures, even if we have the necessary normative competence. These attitudes toward the self, in turn, are formed through mutual recognition – we value ourselves when those who we value value us. Thus, standing in the right sort of relations of recognition is indirectly necessary for autonomy and moral responsibility. Recognition and valuing are concretely manifest in actions and institutions, whose practices make possible participation on an equal footing. Seeing this opens the way for a kind of normative social criticism that is grounded in the value of freedom and automomy, but is not limited to defending negative rights. It thus offers a new way to bridge the gap between liberalism and communitarianism.

Evaluation of the Biocompatibility of Poly (ortho ester), Copolymer of ε-caprolactone/D,L-lactide and the Composite of Copolymer of ε-caprolactone/D,L-lactide and Tricalciumphosphate as Bone Filling Material

The purpose of this series of studies was to evaluate the biocompatibility of poly (ortho) ester (POE), copolymer of ε-caprolactone and D,L-lactide [P (ε-CL/DL-LA)] and the composite of P(ε-CL/DL-LA) and tricalciumphosphate (TCP) as bone filling material in bone defects. Tissue reactions and resorption times of two solid POE-implants (POE 140 and POE 46) with different methods of sterilization (gamma- and ethylene oxide sterilization), P(ε-CL/DL-LA)(40/60 w/w) in paste form and 50/50 w/w composite of 40/60 w/w P(ε-CL/DL-LA) and TCP and 27/73 w/w composite of 60/40 w/w P(ε-CL/DL-LA) and TCP were examined in experimental animals. The follow-up times were from one week to 52 weeks. The bone samples were evaluated histologically and the soft tissue samples histologically, immunohistochemically and electronmicroscopically. The results showed that the resorption time of gamma sterilized POE 140 was eight weeks and ethylene oxide sterilized POE 140 13 weeks in bone. The resorption time of POE 46 was more than 24 weeks. The gamma sterilized rods started to erode from the surface faster than ethylene oxide sterilized rods for both POEs. Inflammation in bone was from slight to moderate with POE 140 and moderate with POE 46. No highly fluorescent layer of tenascin or fibronectin was found in the soft tissue. Bone healing at the sites of implantation was slower than at control sites with the copolymer in small bone defects. The resorption time for the copolymer was over one year. Inflammation in bone was mostly moderate. Bone healing at the sites of implantation was also slower than at the control sites with the composite in small and large mandibular bone defects. Bone formation had ceased at both sites by the end of follow-up in large mandibular bone defects. The ultrastructure of the connective tissue was normal during the period of observation. It can be concluded that the method of sterilization influenced the resorption time of both POEs. Gamma sterilized POE 140 could have been suitable material for filling small bone defects, whereas the degradation times of solid EO-sterilized POE 140 and POE 46 were too slow to be considered as bone filling material. Solid material is difficult to contour, which can be considered as a disadvantage. The composites were excellent to handle, but the degradation time of the polymer and the composites were too slow. Therefore, the copolymer and the composite can not be recommended as bone filling material.

Uuden median murros Alma Mediassa, Sanoma Oy:ssä ja Yleisradiossa 1994-2004

This is a qualitative and multimethodological comparative study, which consists of two main parts: examining the development of new media and analysing and comparing the new media strategies of the three companies studied (Alma Media, Sanoma and the Finnish Broadcasting Company Yleisradio). The study includes the first large-scale review in Finnish of the development of new media, paying attention to the birth of the Internet as well as to mobile media, web TV and any other element of new media. It also concentrates on the function of electronic distribution channels before the age of the Internet, e.g. cable text and videotext. Answers about how the three traditional Finnish media houses began spreading their content to the Internet and wireless applications in 1994–2004 are also given. In researching the new media strategies the study pays special attention to the attitudes that the three media companies adopted towards the Internet and other forms of new media in their strategies during the years in question. By analysing and comparing, e.g., the companies’ strategies and their investments, the study ascertains whether the companies had a joint functional model in adopting new media or acted totally on their own without taking too much notice of the media field overall. The study makes extensive use of previously published material. The researcher has also interviewed almost twenty people who were involved in getting the companies’ new media functions under way. The methods for the interviews were dialogue and snowball sampling. The researcher has created a classification in which he divides the business strategies into four different categories: active strategy, careful strategy, permissive strategy, and passive strategy. In comparing and analysing the companies the researcher has used the classification devised by Allan Afuah & Christopher L. Tucci. The seven element classification consists of dominant managerial logic, competency trap, fear of cannibalisation and loss of revenue, channel conflict, political power, co-opetitor power and emotional attachment. In analysing the company strategies the researcher has also noted the classifications of convergence made by Everette E. Dennis and Graham Murdock as well as the aspects formulated by Sylvia Chan-Olmsted and Louisa Ha concerning the success of the companies in adopting the Internet into their functions. Based on all these classifications and by further developing them the researcher analyses and compares the success of the new media strategies of the three Finnish companies. The outcome of the study is a conclusion as to what kind of strategies the companies have carried out their new media functions and how they have succeeded in it.

Nile Basin Initiative diskursiivisena areenana

Pro gradu -tutkielma käsittelee Niilin alueen poliittista kehitystä käyttäen viitekehyksenä Barry Buzanin, Ole Wæverin sekä Jaap de Wilden muodostaman Kööpenhaminan koulukunnan teoriaa turvallistamisesta sekä turvallisuuskomplekseista. Niilin kymmenen valtiota kattavan jokialueen poliittista historiaa on vuosikymmenet hallinnut valtioiden välinen epäluottamus, ja erityisesti Egypti, joka on täysin riippuvainen Niilin vesivaroista, on julistanut Niilin vesivarojen olevan sille kansallinen turvallisuuskysymys, ja se on uhannut käyttää myös voimakeinoja puolustaakseen vedenkäyttöoikeuksiaan. Egyptiä on myös voitu Niilin alueen hegemonina, sillä vanhat, alun perin siirtomaa-ajalta peräisin olevat sopimukset ovat antaneet sille lähes yksinoikeuden Niilin vesivarojen käyttöön. Samanaikaisesti erityisesti Etiopia, jonka alueelta suurin osa joen vesivaroista on peräisin, on pitänyt vanhoja sopimuksia epäreiluina, ja vedonnut maassa kasvavaan nälänhätään ja ruokapulaan, mutta myös useat muut alueen valtiot ovat esittäneet tyytymättömyytensä vanhoihin sopimuksiin. Vuonna 1999 kehityksessä tapahtui kuitenkin käänne, sillä jokilaakson valtiot perustivat tuolloin Niilin jokialueen yhteistyöjärjestön Nile Basin Initiativen (NBI). Tutkielma keskittyy NBI:n perustamisen jälkeiseen ajanjaksoon. Keskeinen tutkimuskysymys on, millä tavalla Niilin alueen jäsenvaltiot pyrkivät 2000-luvun alkupuolella keskinäisellä toiminnallaan muuttamaan alueella vallitsevaa kilpailu- ja konfliktiasetelmaa rauhanomaiseen suuntaan. Aineistona käytetään NBI:n omia kausijulkaisuja vuosilta 2006–2010, ja tutkimuksen menetelmänä käytetään diskurssianalyysia. Tutkitun aineiston perusteella on esitettävissä, että Niilin alueen poliittisesta kehityksestä on selvästi erotettavissa diskursseja, jotka ovat NBI:n toiminnan taustalla. Nämä ovat luottamuksen rakentamisen, yhteisten haasteiden voittamisen, yhteistyön tärkeyden sekä saavutusten diskurssit. Aineiston perusteella on nähtävissä, että valtioiden välisen luottamuksen vähitellen lisääntyessä yhteistyötä aletaan yhä enemmän legitimoida aikaisemmin yhteistyöstä saavutetuilla hyödyillä. Toisaalta diskurssianalyysin perusteella on myös nähtävissä, että alueella on ratkaisematta yhä fundamentaalisia ongelmia; uutta vesisopimusta ei ole vielä vuoteen 2010 mennessä aikaansaatu ja NBI:n jäsenvaltioiden suhteissa on myös nähtävissä kiistaa periaatteista, joihin yhteistyön olisi pohjauduttava. Tutkielma pyrkii analyysin avulla kehittämään myös Kööpenhaminan koulukunnan teoriaa turvallistamisesta. Kööpenhaminan koulukunta jättää turvallistamisen purkamiskehityksen kirjoituksissaan taka-alalle keskustelun painottuessa siihen, kuinka jokin asia tuodaan esille julkiseen turvallisuuskeskusteluun. Tältä osin tutkimuksen tavoitteena on esittää mahdollinen kehityskulku turvallistamisen purkamisdiskurssista. Teoriaosuudessa käytetyt keskeiset lähteet: Allan 2001,2009; Buzan 1991; Buzan ja Wæver 2003; Buzan, Wæver ja de Wilde 1998; Jutila 2008; Schulz 1995; Stritzel 2007; Turton 2001; Wæver 1995; Wendt 1992, 1999.

Galilein ja Miltonin ihmeellinen tapaaminen

Tarkastelun kohteena on Galileo Galilein ja John Miltonin tapaaminen 1638 sekä Galilein inkvisitio-oikeudenkäynnin vaikutus John Miltonin käsitykseen sananvapaudesta. Artikkelia on täydennetty 2009.