The Philosophical Age. Almanac. Issue 36. The Northern Lights

keywords: Enlightenment, Northern countries, Finland, Russia, Scotland In the 36 th edition of the almanac "Philosophical Age" published materials of international symposium «The Northern Lights - Facets of Enlightenment Culture», (held September 25-26, 2009) in The Aleksanteri Institute the University of Helsinki. Contents: Vesa Oittinen Between Radicalism and Utilitarianism — On the Profile of the Finnish Enlightenment Tatiana Artemyeva The Status of Intellectual Values in the Russian Enlightenment Oili Pulkkinen The Cosmopolitan Experience, Theoretical Histories and the Universal Science of the Scottish Enlightenment Аlla Zlatopolskaya L’autocritique des Lumières chez Rousseau et le rousseauisme russe Johannes Remy Alexander Radishchev, Ethical Consuming, and North American Quakers Kimmo Sarje Anders Chydenius and Radical Swedish Enlightenment Johan Sten Anders Johan Lexell: A Finnish Astronomer at St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and His European Contacts Mikhail Mikeshin A Russian Adam Smith in French Style: An Example of the Transfer of Ideas Larisa Agamalian The Library of an Enlightened Russian Landowner

Towards the Breaking Day : An Ethnography of Belian Curing Rituals among the Luangans of Indonesian Borneo

Towards the Breaking Day is an ethnography of belian, an exceptionally lively tradition of curing rituals performed by the Luangans, a politically marginalized population of swidden cultivators of Indonesian Borneo. The principal purpose of the study is to explore the significance of belian rituals in practice. It asks what belian rituals do socially, politically, and existentially for particular people in particular circumstances. Departing from conventional conceptions of rituals as ethereal liminal or insulated traditional domains, it demonstrates the importance of understanding rituals as emergent within their specific historical and social settings, and highlights the irreducibility of lived reality to epistemological certainty. Each chapter of the book represents an analysis of a concrete ritual performance, exemplifying a diversity of ritual genres, stylistic modalities and sensual ambiences, ranging from low-keyed, habitual affairs to drawn-out, crowd-seizing community rituals and innovative, montage-like cultural experiments. The study is based on eighteen months of ethnographic fieldwork in non-Christian Central Luangan communities in which ritual and everyday life are complexly intermixed. It is intended as a contribution to the anthropological study of ritual and to the ethnography of Borneo religion in which the study of shamanistic life rituals has been overshadowed by a long-standing fascination with death and funerary rites.

Ennaltamäärätty kääntymys: Predestinaatio ja vapaan tahdon ongelma Jonathan Edwardsin teologiassa

Tämän tutkielman tehtävänä on ollut selvittää onko ihmisellä vapaata tahtoa Jonathan Edwardsin mukaan. Lähteenäni minulla on ollut Edwardsin Freedom of the Will -teos sekä Miscellaneous- sarjasta Concerning the Divine Degrees -kirjoitus. Metodina minulla on ollut systemaattinen analyysi. Edwardsin taustana oli puritanismi. Esimerkiksi sakramenteilla ei ollut puritanismin piirissä samaa ratkaisevaa merkitystä uskon synnyttäjänä ja ylläpitäjänä kuin perinteisissä kristillisissä kirkoissa oli ollut. Puritanistien keskeinen armonväline oli saarna. Saarnalla pyrittiin vaikuttamaan ihmisen tahtoon antamalla rationaalisia perusteita Raamatun pelastustapahtumasta. Tämä on nähtävissä myös Jonathan Edwardsin teologiassa. Deismi ja valistus vaikuttivat myös Edwardsin aikaiseen ajatteluun voimakkaasti. Edwardsin Berkeleytä muistuttava idealismi kuitenkin takasi sen, että Jumala ei irronnut maailmasta vaan oli kaikessa koko ajan läsnä. Erityisesti Locke Newtonin luonnontieteiden filosofina vaikutti Edwardsin filosofiseen ajatteluun tahdon vapaus -kysymyksen osalta. Edwards pyrki Locken ja Newtonin avulla puolustamaan perinteistä kalvinistista kristillisyyttä. Tämän kilpailijaksi puritanismin piirissä oli tullut ajan henkeen sopiva järkiperäinen arminiolaisuus, joka edusti myös anti-revivalismia. Tähän arminiolaisuuteen liittyi perinteisistä kristillisistä opeista luopuminen. Tämä arminiolaisuus oli kehittynyt antropologisempaan suuntaan Remonstranssin ajoista korostaen ihmisen vapaita tahdon akteja. Näin ihminen pystyi päättämään uskoiko hän vai ei. Edwardsille usko ja pelastuminen perustuivat Jumalan valintaan, jossa kolmiyhteinen Jumala otti ihmisen yhteyteensä. Tämä kääntymys ilmeni kommuuniona ja uniona Kristuksen kanssa. Edwardsin ajattelua tahdon vapauden osalta avaa kompatibilismi. Kompatibilismin mukaan ennaltamäärääminen ei ole ristiriidassa vapaan tahdon kanssa, vaan päinvastoin sen lähtökohta ja perusta. Kääntymissä olemme eri näkökulmista täysin passivisia ja täysin aktiivisia. Kompatibilismin myötä Edwardsin kirjoitusten pohjalta pystytään johtamaan ennalta määrätty uskonratkaisu. Myöhemmin Edwardsin seuraajat New Lights harppasivat ironisesti arminiolaiseen suuntaan korostaen juuri uskonratkaisua. Vaikka Jumalalla on sanan varsinaisessa merkityksessä vapaa tahto, niin silti Hän toimii välttämättä pyhästi. Samoin Jeesus Kristus on linkkinä ihmisten välttämättömälle, mutta vastuulliselle toiminnalle. Jeesuksen valinta on kaikkien pyhien valinnan perusta. Ne, jotka Jumala hylkää helvettiin saavat oikeudenmukaisen rangaistuksen, koska Jumala rankaisee heissä itsessään olevaa pahaa. Se, miksi Jumala valitsee toiset ja hylkää toiset, kuuluu Jumalan salattuun tahtoon. Jumalan ilmoitetun tahdon mukaan Hän tahtoo kaikkien pelastuvan. Arminiolaiset hylkäävät ennaltamääräämisen, mutta hyväksyvät ennalta tietämisen. Edwardsille nämä ovat sama asia. Edwardsin mukaan välttämättömyys ei ole ristiriidassa vapauden kanssa. Luonnollisella ja moraalisella välttämättömyydellä on yhteys. Arkikielessä moraalista välttämättömyyttä ei oleteta. Koko tahdon vapaus -kysymys on pitkälti kielellinen. Arkikielessä ja filosofisessa kielessä on ero. Tahto ei ole agentti, joka voi valita itsenäisesti. Vapaus on ihmisen, ei tahdon ominaisuus. Siksi kysymys tahdon vapaudesta tulisi esittää onko ihminen vapaa. Edwards ja arminiolaiset ymmärtävät vapauden eri tavoin. Edwardsin mukaan tahdolla on oltava alku, eikä tahto voi koskaan arminiolaisten tavoin neutraali. Arminiolaiset hylkäävät perisyntiopin klassisessa merkityksessä, mistä seuraa erilainen lähtökohta. Sellaisena kuin arminiolaiset esittävät vapaan tahdon, meillä ei sitä Edwardsin mukaan ole. Vaikka kaikki tapahtuu Edwardsin mukaan välttämättä, niin silti olemme vastuullisia moraalisia agentteja.

Functional Outcome after Free Flap Reconstructions in Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer

Oral cancer ranks among the 10 most common cancers worldwide. Since it is commonly diagnosed at locally advanced stage, curing the cancer demands extensive tissue resection. The emergent defect is reconstructed generally with a free flap transfer. Repair of the upper aerodigestive track with maintenance of its multiform activities is challenging. The aim of the study was to extract comprehensive treatment outcomes for patients having undergone microvascular free flap transfer because of large oral cavity or pharyngeal cancer. Ninety-four patients were analyzed for postoperative survival and complications. Forty-four patients were followed-up and analyzed for functional outcome, which was determined in terms of quality of life, speech, swallowing, and intraoral sensation. Quality of life was assessed using the University of Washington Head and Neck Questionnaire. Speech was analyzed for aerodynamic parameters and for nasal acoustic energy, as well as perceptually for articulatory proficiency, voice quality, and intelligibility. Videofluorography was performed to determine the swallowing ability. Intraoral sensation was measured by moving 2-point discrimination. The 3-year overall survival was over 40%. The 1-year disease-free survival was 43%. Postoperative complications arose in over half of the patients. Flap success rate was high. Perioperative mortality varied between 2% and 11%. Unemployment and heavy drinking were the strongest predictors of survival. Sociodemographic factors were found to associate with quality of life. The global quality of life score deteriorated and did not return to the preoperative level. Significant reduction was detectable in the domains measuring chewing and speech, and in appearance and shoulder function. The basic elements necessary for normal speech were maintained. Speech intelligibility reduced and was related to the misarticulations of the /r/ and /s/ phonemes. Deviant /r/ and /s/ persisted in most patients. Hoarseness and hypernasality occurred infrequently. One year postoperatively, 98% of the patients had achieved oral nutrition and half of them were on a regular masticated diet. Overt and silent aspiration was encountered throughout the follow-up. At 12-month swallow test, 44% of the patients aspirated, 70% of whom silently. Of these patients, 15% presented with pulmonary changes referring to aspiration. Intraoral sensation weakened but was unrelated to oral functions. The results provide new data for oral reconstructions and highlight the importance of the functional outcome of the treatment for an oral cancer patient. The mouth and the pharynx encompass a unit of utmost functional complexity. Surgery should continue to make progress in this area, and methods that lead to good function should be developed. Operational outcome should always be evaluated in terms of function.

Approaches for improving the safety and efficacy of adenoviral gene therapy

Cancer is a devastating disease with poor prognosis and no curative treatment, when widely metastatic. Conventional therapies, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, have efficacy but are not curative and systemic toxicity can be considerable. Almost all cancers are caused due to changes in the genetic material of the transformed cells. Cancer gene therapy has emerged as a new treatment option, and past decades brought new insights in developing new therapeutic drugs for curing cancer. Oncolytic viruses constitute a novel therapeutic approach given their capacity to replicate in and kill specifically tumor cells as well as reaching tumor distant metastasis. Adenoviral gene therapy has been suggested to cause liver toxicity. This study shows that new developed adenoviruses, in particular Ad5/19p-HIT, can be redirected towards kidney while adenovirus uptake by liver is minimal. Moreover, low liver transduction resulted in a favorable tumor to liver ratio of virus load. Further, we established a new immunocompetent animal model Syrian hamsters. Wild type adenovirus 5 was found to replicate in Hap-T1 hamster tumors and normal tissues. There are no antiviral drugs available to inhibit adenovirus replication. In our study, chlorpromazine and cidofovir efficiently abrogated virus replication in vitro and showed significant reduction in vivo in tumors and liver. Once safety concerns were addressed together with the new given antiviral treatment options, we further improved oncolytic adenoviruses for better tumor penetration, local amplification and host system modulation. Further, we created Ad5/3-9HIF-Δ24-VEGFR-1-Ig, oncolytic adenovirus for improved infectivity and antiangiogenic effect for treatment of renal cancer. This virus exhibited increased anti-tumor effect and specific replication in kidney cancer cells. The key player for good efficacy of oncolytic virotherapy is the host immune response. Thus, we engineered a triple targeted adenovirus Ad5/3-hTERT-E1A-hCD40L, which would lead to tumor elimination due to tumor-specific oncolysis and apoptosis together with an anti-tumor immune response prompted by the immunomodulatory molecule. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis constitute advances in our understanding of oncolytic virotherapy by successful tumor targeting, antiviral treatment options as a safety switch in case of replication associated side-effects, and modulation of the host immune system towards tumor elimination.  

Patents, Ethics and Stem Cell Research : The Case of hESC Innovation in Australia, Europe and the United States

Embryonic stem cells offer potentially a ground-breaking insight into health and diseases and are said to offer hope in discovering cures for many ailments unimaginable few years ago. Human embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated, immature cells that possess an amazing ability to develop into almost any body cell such as heart muscle, bone, nerve and blood cells and possibly even organs in due course. This remarkable feature, enabling embryonic stem cells to proliferate indefinitely in vitro (in a test tube), has branded them as a so-called miracle cure . Their potential use in clinical applications provides hope to many sufferers of debilitating and fatal medical conditions. However, the emergence of stem cell research has resulted in intense debates about its promises and dangers. On the one hand, advocates hail its potential, ranging from alleviating and even curing fatal and debilitating diseases such as Parkinson s, diabetes, heart ailments and so forth. On the other hand, opponents decry its dangers, drawing attention to the inherent risks of human embryo destruction, cloning for research purposes and reproductive cloning eventually. Lately, however, the policy battles surrounding human embryonic stem cell innovation have shifted from being a controversial research to scuffles within intellectual property rights. In fact, the ability to obtain patents represents a pivotal factor in the economic success or failure of this new biotechnology. Although, stem cell patents tend to more or less satisfy the standard patentability requirements, they also raise serious ethical and moral questions about the meaning of the exclusions on ethical or moral grounds as found in European and to an extent American and Australian patent laws. At present there is a sort of a calamity over human embryonic stem cell patents in Europe and to an extent in Australia and the United States. This in turn has created a sense of urgency to engage all relevant parties in the discourse on how best to approach patenting of this new form of scientific innovation. In essence, this should become a highly favoured patenting priority. To the contrary, stem cell innovation and its reliance on patent protection risk turmoil, uncertainty, confusion and even a halt on not only stem cell research but also further emerging biotechnology research and development. The patent system is premised upon the fundamental principle of balance which ought to ensure that the temporary monopoly awarded to the inventor equals that of the social benefit provided by the disclosure of the invention. Ensuring and maintaining this balance within the patent system when patenting human embryonic stem cells is of crucial contemporary relevance. Yet, the patenting of human embryonic stem cells raises some fundamental moral, social and legal questions. Overall, the present approach of patenting human embryonic stem cell related inventions is unsatisfactory and ineffective. This draws attention to a specific question which provides for a conceptual framework for this work. That question is the following: how can the investigated patent offices successfully deal with patentability of human embryonic stem cells? This in turn points at the thorny issue of application of the morality clause in this field. In particular, the interpretation of the exclusions on ethical or moral grounds as found in Australian, American and European legislative and judicial precedents. The Thesis seeks to compare laws and legal practices surrounding patentability of human embryonic stem cells in Australia and the United States with that of Europe. By using Europe as the primary case study for lessons and guidance, the central goal of the Thesis then becomes the determination of the type of solutions available to Europe with prospects to apply such to Australia and the United States. The Dissertation purports to define the ethical implications that arise with patenting human embryonic stem cells and intends to offer resolutions to the key ethical dilemmas surrounding patentability of human embryonic stem cells and other morally controversial biotechnology inventions. In particular, the Thesis goal is to propose a functional framework that may be used as a benchmark for an informed discussion on the solution to resolving ethical and legal tensions that come with patentability of human embryonic stem cells in Australian, American and European patent worlds. Key research questions that arise from these objectives and which continuously thread throughout the monograph are: 1. How do common law countries such as Australia and the United States approach and deal with patentability of human embryonic stem cells in their jurisdictions? These practices are then compared to the situation in Europe as represented by the United Kingdom (first two chapters), the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Patent Office decisions (Chapter 3 onwards) in order to obtain a full picture of the present patenting procedures on the European soil. 2. How are ethical and moral considerations taken into account at patent offices investigated when assessing patentability of human embryonic stem cell related inventions? In order to assess this part, the Thesis evaluates how ethical issues that arise with patent applications are dealt with by: a) Legislative history of the modern patent system from its inception in 15th Century England to present day patent laws. b) Australian, American and European patent offices presently and in the past, including other relevant legal precedents on the subject matter. c) Normative ethical theories. d) The notion of human dignity used as the lowest common denominator for the interpretation of the European morality clause. 3. Given the existence of the morality clause in form of Article 6(1) of the Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions which corresponds to Article 53(a) European Patent Convention, a special emphasis is put on Europe as a guiding principle for Australia and the United States. Any room for improvement of the European morality clause and Europe s current manner of evaluating ethical tensions surrounding human embryonic stem cell inventions is examined. 4. A summary of options (as represented by Australia, the United States and Europe) available as a basis for the optimal examination procedure of human embryonic stem cell inventions is depicted, whereas the best of such alternatives is deduced in order to create a benchmark framework. This framework is then utilised on and promoted as a tool to assist Europe (as represented by the European Patent Office) in examining human embryonic stem cell patent applications. This method suggests a possibility of implementing an institution solution. 5. Ultimately, a question of whether such reformed European patent system can be used as a founding stone for a potential patent reform in Australia and the United States when examining human embryonic stem cells or other morally controversial inventions is surveyed. The author wishes to emphasise that the guiding thought while carrying out this work is to convey the significance of identifying, analysing and clarifying the ethical tensions surrounding patenting human embryonic stem cells and ultimately present a solution that adequately assesses patentability of human embryonic stem cell inventions and related biotechnologies. In answering the key questions above, the Thesis strives to contribute to the broader stem cell debate about how and to which extent ethical and social positions should be integrated into the patenting procedure in pluralistic and morally divided democracies of Europe and subsequently Australia and the United States.