Lean Thinking in Software Development : Impacts of Kanban on Projects

The history of software development in a somewhat systematical way has been performed for half a century. Despite this time period, serious failures in software development projects still occur. The pertinent mission of software project management is to continuously achieve more and more successful projects. The application of agile software methods and more recently the integration of Lean practices contribute to this trend of continuous improvement in the software industry. One such area warranting proper empirical evidence is the operational efficiency of projects. In the field of software development, Kanban as a process management method has gained momentum recently, mostly due to its linkages to Lean thinking. However, only a few empirical studies investigate the impacts of Kanban on projects in that particular area. The aim of this doctoral thesis is to improve the understanding of how Kanban impacts on software projects. The research is carried out in the area of Lean thinking, which contains a variety of concepts including Kanban. This article-type thesis conducts a set of case studies expanded with the research strategy of quasi-controlled experiment. The data-gathering techniques of interviews, questionnaires, and different types of observations are used to study the case projects, and thereby to understand the impacts of Kanban on software development projects. The research papers of the thesis are refereed, international journal and conference publications. The results highlight new findings regarding the application of Kanban in the software context. The key findings of the thesis suggest that Kanban is applicable to software development. Despite its several benefits reported in this thesis, the empirical evidence implies that Kanban is not all-encompassing but requires additional practices to keep development projects performing appropriately. Implications for research are given, as well. In addition to these findings, the thesis contributes in the area of plan-driven software development by suggesting implications both for research and practitioners. As a conclusion, Kanban can benefit software development projects but additional practices would increase its potential for the projects.

Characterization of Ion-Exchange Fibers for Controlled Drug Delivery

Increasing attention has been focused on methods that deliver pharmacologically active compounds (e.g. drugs, peptides and proteins) in a controlled fashion, so that constant, sustained, site-specific or pulsatile action can be attained. Ion-exchange resins have been widely studied in medical and pharmaceutical applications, including controlled drug delivery, leading to commercialisation of some resin based formulations. Ion-exchangers provide an efficient means to adjust and control drug delivery, as the electrostatic interactions enable precise control of the ion-exchange process and, thus, a more uniform and accurate control of drug release compared to systems that are based only on physical interactions. Unlike the resins, only few studies have been reported on ion-exchange fibers in drug delivery. However, the ion-exchange fibers have many advantageous properties compared to the conventional ion-exchange resins, such as more efficient compound loading into and release from the ion-exchanger, easier incorporation of drug-sized compounds, enhanced control of the ion-exchange process, better mechanical, chemical and thermal stability, and good formulation properties, which make the fibers attractive materials for controlled drug delivery systems. In this study, the factors affecting the nature and strength of the binding/loading of drug-sized model compounds into the ion-exchange fibers was evaluated comprehensively and, moreover, the controllability of subsequent drug release/delivery from the fibers was assessed by modifying the conditions of external solutions. Also the feasibility of ion-exchange fibers for simultaneous delivery of two drugs in combination was studied by dual loading. Donnan theory and theoretical modelling were applied to gain mechanistic understanding on these factors. The experimental results imply that incorporation of model compounds into the ion-exchange fibers was attained mainly as a result of ionic bonding, with additional contribution of non-specific interactions. Increasing the ion-exchange capacity of the fiber or decreasing the valence of loaded compounds increased the molar loading, while more efficient release of the compounds was observed consistently at conditions where the valence or concentration of the extracting counter-ion was increased. Donnan theory was capable of fully interpreting the ion-exchange equilibria and the theoretical modelling supported precisely the experimental observations. The physico-chemical characteristics (lipophilicity, hydrogen bonding ability) of the model compounds and the framework of the fibrous ion-exchanger influenced the affinity of the drugs towards the fibers and may, thus, affect both drug loading and release. It was concluded that precisely controlled drug delivery may be tailored for each compound, in particularly, by choosing a suitable ion-exchange fiber and optimizing the delivery system to take into account the external conditions, also when delivering two drugs simultaneously.

Musculoskeletal disorders and psychosocial factors at work : Effects of a participatory ergonomics intervention in a cluster randomized controlled trial

This study examined the efficacy of a participatory ergonomics intervention in preventing musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and changing unsatisfactory psychosocial working conditions among municipal kitchen workers. The occurrence of multiple-site musculoskeletal pain (MSP) and associations between MSP and psychosocial factors at work over time were studied secondarily. A cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted during 2002-2005 in 119 municipal kitchens with 504 workers. The kitchens were randomized to an intervention (n = 59) and control (n = 60) group. The intervention lasted 11 to 14 months. The workers identified strenuous work tasks and sought solutions for decreasing physical and mental workload. The main outcomes were the occurrence of and trouble caused by musculoskeletal pain in seven anatomical sites, local musculoskeletal fatigue after work, and musculoskeletal sick leaves. Psychosocial factors at work (job control, skill discretion, co-worker relationships, supervisor support, mental strenuousness of work, hurry, job satisfaction) and mental stress were studied as intermediate outcomes of the intervention. Questionnaire data were collected at three months intervals during the intervention and the one-year post-intervention follow-up. Response rates varied between 92 % and 99 %. In total, 402 ergonomic changes were implemented. In the control group, 80 changes were spontaneously implemented within normal activity. The intervention did not reduce perceived physical workload and no systematic differences in any health outcomes were found between the intervention and control groups during the intervention or during the one-year follow-up. The results suggest that the intervention as studied in the present trial was not more effective in reducing perceived physical workload or preventing MSDs compared with no such intervention. Little previous evidence of the effectiveness of ergonomics interventions in preventing MSDs exists. The effects on psychosocial factors at work were adverse, especially in the two of the participating cities where re-organization of foodservices timed simultaneously with the intervention. If organizational reforms at workplace are expected to occur, the execution of other workplace interventions at the same time should be avoided. The co-occurrence of musculoskeletal pain at several sites is observed to be more common than pain at single anatomical sites. However, the risk factors of MSP are largely unknown. This study showed that at baseline, 73 % of the women reported pain in at least two, 36 % in four or more, and 10 % in six to seven sites. The seven pain symptoms occurred in over 80 different combinations. When co-occurrence of pain was studied in three larger anatomical areas (neck/low back, upper limbs, lower limbs), concurrent pain in all three areas was the most common combination (36 %). The 3-month prevalence of MSP (≥ 3 of seven sites) varied between 50 % and 61 % during the two-year follow-up period. Psychosocial factors at work and mental stress were strong predictors for MSP over time and, vice versa, MSP predicted psychosocial factors at work and mental stress. The reciprocality of the relationships implies either two mutually dependent processes in time, or some shared common underlying factor(s).

Molecular genetics and evolution of Puumala hantavirus

Puumala virus (PUUV) is the causative agent of nephropathia epidemica (NE), a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Finland has the highest documented incidence of NE with around 1000 cases diagnosed annually. PUUV is also found in other Scandinavian countries, Central Europe and the European part of Russia. PUUV belongs to the genus Hantavirus in the family Bunyaviridae. Hantaviruses are rodent-borne viruses each carried by a specific host that is persistently and asymptomatically infected by the virus. PUUV is carried by the bank voles (Myodes glareolus, previously known as Clethrionomys glareolus). Hantaviruses have co-evolved with their carrier rodents for millions of years and these host animals are the evolutionary scene of hantaviruses. In this study, PUUV sequences were recovered from bank voles captured in Denmark and Russian Karelia to study the evolution of PUUV in Scandinavia. Phylogenetic analysis of these strains showed a geographical clustering of genetic variants following the presumable migration pattern of bank voles during the recolonization of Scandinavia after the last ice age approximately 10 000 years ago. The currently known PUUV genome sequences were subjected to in-depth phylogenetic analyses and the results showed that genetic drift seems to be the major mechanism of PUUV evolution. In general, PUUV seems to evolve quite slowly following a molecular clock. We also found evidence for recombination in the evolution of some genetic lineages of PUUV. Viral microevolution was studied in controlled virus transmission in colonized bank voles and changes in quasispecies dynamics were recorded as the virus was transmitted from one animal to another. We witnessed PUUV evolution in vivo, as one synonymous mutation became repeatedly fixed in the viral genome during the experiment. The detailed knowledge on the PUUV diversity was used to establish new sensitive and specific detection methods for this virus. Direct viral invasion of the hypophysis was demonstrated for the first time in a lethal case of NE. PUUV detection was done by immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization and RT-nested-PCR of the autopsy tissue samples.

Molecular Biomonitoring during Rhizoremediation of Oil-Contaminated Soil

Rhizoremediation is the use of microbial populations present in the rhizosphere of plants for environmental cleanup. The idea of this work was that bacteria living in the rhizosphere of a nitrogen-fixing leguminous plant, goat's rue (Galega orientalis), could take part in the degradation of harmful monoaromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene and xylene (BTEX), from oil-contaminated soils. In addition to chemical (e.g. pollutant concentration) and physical (e.g. soil structure) information, the knowledge of biological aspects (e.g. bacteria and their catabolic genes) is essential when developing the rhizoremediation into controlled and effective bioremediation practice. Therefore, the need for reliable biomonitoring methods is obvious. The main aims of this thesis were to evaluate the symbiotic G. orientalis - Rhizobium galegae system for rhizoremediation of oil-contaminated soils, to develop molecular methods for biomonitoring, and to apply these methods for studying the microbiology of rhizoremediation. In vitro, Galega plants and rhizobia remained viable in m-toluate concentrations up to 3000 mg/l. Plant growth and nodulation were inhibited in 500 mg/l m-toluate, but were restored when plants were transferred to clean medium. In the greenhouse, Galega showed good growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation, and developed a strong rhizosphere in soils contaminated with oil or spiked with 2000 mg/l m-toluate. The high aromatic tolerance of R. galegae and the viability of Galega plants in oil-polluted soils proved this legume system to be a promising method for the rhizoremediation of oil-contaminated soils. Molecular biomonitoring methods were designed and/or developed further for bacteria and their degradation genes. A combination of genomic fingerprinting ((GTG)5-PCR), taxonomic ribotyping of 16S rRNA genes and partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing were chosen for molecular grouping of culturable, heterogeneous rhizosphere bacteria. PCR primers specific for the xylE gene were designed for TOL plasmid detection. Amplified enzyme-coding DNA restriction analysis (AEDRA) with AluI was used to profile both TOL plasmids (xylE primers) and, in general, aromatics-degrading plasmids (C230 primers). The sensitivity of the direct monitoring of TOL plasmids in soil was enhanced by nested C23O-xylE-PCR. Rhizosphere bacteria were isolated from the greenhouse and field lysimeter experiments. High genetic diversity was observed among the 50 isolated, m-toluate tolerating rhizosphere bacteria in the form of five major lineages of the Bacteria domain. Gram-positive Rhodococcus, Bacillus and Arthrobacter and gram-negative Pseudomonas were the most abundant genera. The inoculum Pseudomonas putida PaW85/pWW0 was not found in the rhizosphere samples. Even if there were no ecological niches available for the bioaugmentation bacterium itself, its conjugative catabolic plasmid might have had some additional value for other bacterial species and thus, for rhizoremediation. Only 10 to 20% of the isolated, m-toluate tolerating bacterial strains were also able to degrade m-toluate. TOL plasmids were a major group of catabolic plasmids among these bacteria. The ability to degrade m-toluate by using enzymes encoded by a TOL plasmid was detected only in species of the genus Pseudomonas, and the best m-toluate degraders were these Pseudomonas species. Strain-specific differences in degradation abilities were found for P.oryzihabitans and P. migulae: some of these strains harbored a TOL plasmid - a new finding observed in this work, indicating putative horizontal plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere. One P. oryzihabitans strain harbored the pWW0 plasmid that had probably conjugated from the bioaugmentation Pseudomonas. Some P. migulae and P. oryzihabitans strains seemed to harbor both the pWW0- and the pDK1-type TOL plasmid. Alternatively, they might have harbored a TOL plasmid with both the pWW0- and the pDK1-type xylE gene. The breakdown of m-toluate by gram-negative bacteria was not restricted to the TOL pathway. Also some gram-positive Rhodococcus erythropolis and Arthrobacter aurescens strains were able to degrade m-toluate in the absence of a TOL plasmid. Three aspects of the rhizosphere effect of G. orientalis were manifested in oil-contaminated soil in the field: 1) G. orientalis and Pseudomonas bioaugmentation increased the amount of rhizosphere bacteria. G. orientalis especially together with Pseudomonas bioaugmentation increased the numbers of m-toluate utilizing and catechol positive bacteria indicating an increase in degradation potential. 2) Also the bacterial diversity, when measured as the amount of ribotypes, was increased in the Galega rhizosphere with or without Pseudomonas bioaugmentation. However, the diversity of m-toluate utilizing bacteria did not significantly increase. At the community level, by using the 16S rRNA gene PCR-DGGE method, the highest diversity of species was also observed in vegetated soils compared with non-vegetated soils. Diversified communities may best guarantee the overall success in rhizoremediation by offering various genetic machineries for catabolic processes. 3) At the end of the experiment, no TOL plasmid could be detected by direct DNA analysis in soil treated with both G. orientalis and Pseudomonas. The detection limit for TOL plasmids was encountered indicating decreased amount of degradation plasmids and thus, the success of rhizoremediation. The use of G. orientalis for rhizoremediation is unique. In this thesis new information was obtained about the rhizosphere effect of Galega orientalis in BTEX contaminated soils. The molecular biomonitoring methods can be applied for several purposes within environmental biotechnology, such as for evaluating the intrinsic biodegradation potential, monitoring the enhanced bioremediation, and estimating the success of bioremediation. Environmental protection by using nature's own resources and thus, acting according to the principle of sustainable development, would be both economically and environmentally beneficial for society. Keywords: molecular biomonitoring, genetic fingerprinting, soil bacteria, bacterial diversity, TOL plasmid, catabolic genes, horizontal gene transfer, rhizoremediation, rhizosphere effect, Galega orientalis, aerobic biodegradation, petroleum hydrocarbons, BTEX

Valuation of reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland : Choice experiment with attention to heterogeneous and discontinuous preferences and respondent uncertainty

Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea is a serious problem. This thesis estimates the benefit to Finns from reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland, the most eutrophied part of the Baltic Sea, by applying the choice experiment method, which belongs to the family of stated preference methods. Because stated preference methods have been subject to criticism, e.g., due to their hypothetical survey context, this thesis contributes to the discussion by studying two anomalies that may lead to biased welfare estimates: respondent uncertainty and preference discontinuity. The former refers to the difficulty of stating one s preferences for an environmental good in a hypothetical context. The latter implies a departure from the continuity assumption of conventional consumer theory, which forms the basis for the method and the analysis. In the three essays of the thesis, discrete choice data are analyzed with the multinomial logit and mixed logit models. On average, Finns are willing to contribute to the water quality improvement. The probability for willingness increases with residential or recreational contact with the gulf, higher than average income, younger than average age, and the absence of dependent children in the household. On average, for Finns the relatively most important characteristic of water quality is water clarity followed by the desire for fewer occurrences of blue-green algae. For future nutrient reduction scenarios, the annual mean household willingness to pay estimates range from 271 to 448 and the aggregate welfare estimates for Finns range from 28 billion to 54 billion euros, depending on the model and the intensity of the reduction. Out of the respondents (N=726), 72.1% state in a follow-up question that they are either Certain or Quite certain about their answer when choosing the preferred alternative in the experiment. Based on the analysis of other follow-up questions and another sample (N=307), 10.4% of the respondents are identified as potentially having discontinuous preferences. In relation to both anomalies, the respondent- and questionnaire-specific variables are found among the underlying causes and a departure from standard analysis may improve the model fit and the efficiency of estimates, depending on the chosen modeling approach. The introduction of uncertainty about the future state of the Gulf increases the acceptance of the valuation scenario which may indicate an increased credibility of a proposed scenario. In conclusion, modeling preference heterogeneity is an essential part of the analysis of discrete choice data. The results regarding uncertainty in stating one s preferences and non-standard choice behavior are promising: accounting for these anomalies in the analysis may improve the precision of the estimates of benefit from reduced eutrophication in the Gulf of Finland.

Suomen maankuoren kivilajikoostumuksen tulkinta seismisistä aineistoista

Aim of this study is to investigate composition of the crust in Finland using seismic wide-angle velocity models and laboratory measurements on P- and S-wave velocities of different rock types. The velocities adopted from wide-angle velocity models were compared with laboratory velocities of different rock types corrected for the crustal PT conditions in the study area. The wide-angle velocity models indicate that the P-wave velocity does not only increase step-wise at boundaries of major crustal layers, but there is also gradual increase of velocity within the layers. On the other hand, the laboratory measurements of velocities indicate that no single rock type is able to provide the gradual downward increasing trends. Thus, there must be gradual vertical changes in rock composition. The downward increase of velocities indicates that the composition of the crust becomes gradually more mafic with increasing depth. Even though single rock types cannot simulate the wide-angle model velocities, it can be done with a mixture of rock types. There are a large number of rock type mixtures giving the correct P-wave velocities. Therefore, the inverse solution of rock types and their proportions from velocities is a non-unique problem if only P-wave velocities is available. Amount of the possible rock type mixtures can be limitted using S-wave velocities, reflection seismic results and other geological and geophysical results of the study area. Crustal model FINMIX-2 is presented in this study and it suggest that the crustal velocity profiles can be simulated with rock type mixtures, where the upper crust consists of felsic gneisses and granitic-granodioritic rocks with a minor contribution of quartzite, amphibolite and diabase. In the middle crust the amphibolite proportion increases. The lower crust consists of tonalitic gneiss, mafic garnet granulite, hornblendite, pyroxenite and minor mafic eclogite. This composition model is in agreement with deep crustal kimberlite-hosted xenolith data in eastern Finland and reflectivity of the FIRE (Finnish Reflection Experiment). According to FINMIX-2 model the Moho is deeper and the crustal composition is a more mafic than an average global continental model would suggest. Composition models of southern Finland are quite similar than FINMIX-2 model. However, there are minor differencies between the models, which indicates areal differences of composition. Models of northern Finland shows that the crustal thickness is smaller than southern Finland and composition of the upper crust is different. Density profiles calculated from the lithological models suggest that there is practically no density contrast at Moho in areas of the high-velocity lower crust. This implies that crustal thickness in the central Fennoscandian Shield may have been controlled by the densities of the lower crustal and upper mantle rocks.

Organized Nanostructures of Thermoresponsive Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) Block Copolymers Obtained Through Controlled RAFT Polymerization

Kontrolloidut radikaalipolymerointimenetelmät, kuten RAFT-polymerointi, ovat moderni tapa valmistaa polymeerejä säädellysti. RAFT-polymeroinnilla polymeerien ketjunpituutta, moolimassajakaumaa, mikrorakennetta (taktisuus, järjestys), koostumusta ja funktionaalisuutta kyetään hallitsemaan. Siten menetelmällä voidaan valmistaa uudenlaisia polymeeriarkkitektuureja, kuten blokki- ja tähtipolymeerejä, sekä hybridimateriaaleja ja biokonjugaatteja. Polymeeristen rakennuspalikoiden itsejärjestyminen, missä huolellisesti syntetisoidut polymeerit järjestyvät halutulla tavalla nanoskaalassa, on suosittu tutkimuskohde materiaalitieteessä. On huomattava, että blokkipolymeerien itsejärjestyminen on vielä suhteellisen nuori tutkimusaihe. Tämän hetkiset polymeeriset nanomateriaalit ovat suhteellisen yksinkertaisia luonnon luomuksiin verrattuina, tarjoten jatkuvasti uusia mahdollisuuksia seuraavan sukupolven polymeereille. Tässä työssä RAFT-polymeroinnilla syntetisoitiin amfifiilisiä di- ja triblokkikopolymeerejä sekä tutkittiin niiden järjestymistä nanorakenteiksi. Kaikissa blokkikopolymeereissä käytettiin lämpöherkkää poly(N-isopropyyliakryyliamidia). Siten polymeerit ja tutkitut materiaalit reagoivat lämpötilanmuutokseen ympäristössä eli ovat ns. ympäristöherkkiä. Työssä tutkittiin taktisuuden kontrollointia N-isopropyyliakryyliamidin RAFT-polymeroinnissa. Polymeerin taktisuutta sekä ketjunpituutta ja blokkijärjestystä säätämällä voitiin hallita polymeerin itsejärjestymistä vesiliuoksessa. Amfifiiliset polymeerit järjestyivät laimeissa vesiliuoksissa erilaisiksi misellirakenteiksi, muodostaen ns. mikrosäiliöitä. Tällaisilla polymeereillä odotetaan olevan sovelluksia esim. lääkeainevapautuksessa. Amfifiilejä käytetään myös esimerkiksi apuaineina pinnoitteissa ja kosmetiikassa. Kiinteässä tilassa tutkitut triblokkikopolymeerit muodostivat teoreettisesti ennustettuja morfologioita. Lämpöherkän materiaalin hydrogeelit toimivat suodatinmembraanina nanokokoluokassa. RAFT-polymeroinnilla syntetisoituja polymeereja voidaan sellaisenaan käyttää kultananopartikkeleiden päällystämiseen. Kultananopartikkelit ovat erittäin kiinostavia mm. niiden stabiilisuuden ja ainutlaatuisten pintaominaisuuksien vuoksi. Kun amfifiilisiä polymeerejä kiinnitettiin kultapartikkelin pinnalle, sen liuos- ja optisia ominaisuuksia voitiin säädellä pH:n ja lämpötilan avulla. Tällaisilla kultananopartikkeleilla on sovelluksia mm. diagnostiikassa, sensoreina ja solukuvauksessa.

Precipitation-induced runoff and leaching from milled peat mining mires by peat types : a comparative method for estimating the loading of water bodies during peat pruduction

Precipitation-induced runoff and leaching from milled peat mining mires by peat types: a comparative method for estimating the loading of water bodies during peat production. This research project in environmental geology has arisen out of an observed need to be able to predict more accurately the loading of watercourses with detrimental organic substances and nutrients from already existing and planned peat production areas, since the authorities capacity for insisting on such predictions covering the whole duration of peat production in connection with evaluations of environmental impact is at present highly limited. National and international decisions regarding monitoring of the condition of watercourses and their improvement and restoration require more sophisticated evaluation methods in order to be able to forecast watercourse loading and its environmental impacts at the stage of land-use planning and preparations for peat production.The present project thus set out from the premise that it would be possible on the basis of existing mire and peat data properties to construct estimates for the typical loading from production mires over the whole duration of their exploitation. Finland has some 10 million hectares of peatland, accounting for almost a third of its total area. Macroclimatic conditions have varied in the course of the Holocene growth and development of this peatland, and with them the habitats of the peat-forming plants. Temperatures and moisture conditions have played a significant role in determining the dominant species of mire plants growing there at any particular time, the resulting mire types and the accumulation and deposition of plant remains to form the peat. The above climatic, environmental and mire development factors, together with ditching, have contributed, and continue to contribute, to the existence of peat horizons that differ in their physical and chemical properties, leading to differences in material transport between peatlands in a natural state and mires that have been ditched or prepared for forestry and peat production. Watercourse loading from the ditching of mires or their use for peat production can have detrimental effects on river and lake environments and their recreational use, especially where oxygen-consuming organic solids and soluble organic substances and nutrients are concerned. It has not previously been possible, however, to estimate in advance the watercourse loading likely to arise from ditching and peat production on the basis of the characteristics of the peat in a mire, although earlier observations have indicated that watercourse loading from peat production can vary greatly and it has been suggested that differences in peat properties may be of significance in this. Sprinkling is used here in combination with simulations of conditions in a milled peat production area to determine the influence of the physical and chemical properties of milled peats in production mires on surface runoff into the drainage ditches and the concentrations of material in the runoff water. Sprinkling and extraction experiments were carried out on 25 samples of milled Carex (C) and Sphagnum (S) peat of humification grades H 2.5 8.5 with moisture content in the range 23.4 89% on commencement of the first sprinkling, which was followed by a second sprinkling 24 hours later. The water retention capacity of the peat was best, and surface runoff lowest, with Sphagnum and Carex peat samples of humification grades H 2.5 6 in the moisture content class 56 75%. On account of the hydrophobicity of dry peat, runoff increased in a fairly regular manner with drying of the sample from 55% to 24 30%. Runoff from the samples with an original moisture content over 55% increased by 63% in the second round of sprinkling relative to the first, as they had practically reached saturation point on the first occasion, while those with an original moisture content below 55% retained their high runoff in the second round, due to continued hydrophobicity. The well-humified samples (H 6.5 8.5) with a moisture content over 80% showed a low water retention capacity and high runoff in both rounds of sprinkling. Loading of the runoff water with suspended solids, total phosphorus and total nitrogen, and also the chemical oxygen demand (CODMn O2), varied greatly in the sprinkling experiment, depending on the peat type and degree of humification, but concentrations of the same substances in the two sprinklings were closely or moderately closely correlated and these correlations were significant. The concentrations of suspended solids in the runoff water observed in the simulations of a peat production area and the direct surface runoff from it into the drainage ditch system in response to rain (sprinkling intensity 1.27 mm/min) varied c. 60-fold between the degrees of humification in the case of the Carex peats and c. 150-fold for the Sphagnum peats, while chemical oxygen demand varied c. 30-fold and c. 50-fold, respectively, total phosphorus c. 60-fold and c. 66-fold, total nitrogen c. 65-fold and c. 195-fold and ammonium nitrogen c. 90-fold and c. 30-fold. The increases in concentrations in the runoff water were very closely correlated with increases in humification of the peat. The correlations of the concentrations measured in extraction experiments (48 h) with peat type and degree of humification corresponded to those observed in the sprinkler experiments. The resulting figures for the surface runoff from a peat production area into the drainage ditches simulated by means of sprinkling and material concentrations in the runoff water were combined with statistics on the mean extent of daily rainfall (0 67 mm) during the frost-free period of the year (May October) over an observation period of 30 years to yield typical annual loading figures (kg/ha) for suspended solids (SS), chemical oxygen demand of organic matter (CODmn O2), total phosphorus (tot. P) and total nitrogen (tot. N) entering the ditches with respect to milled Carex (C) and Sphagnum (S) peats of humification grades H 2.5 8.5. In order to calculate the loading of drainage ditches from a milled peat production mire with the aid of these annual comparative values (in kg/ha), information is required on the properties of the intended production mire and its peat. Once data are available on the area of the mire, its peat depth, peat types and their degrees of humification, dry matter content, calorific value and corresponding energy content, it is possible to produce mutually comparable estimates for individual mires with respect to the annual loading of the drainage ditch system and the surrounding watercourse for the whole service life of the production area, the duration of this service life, determinations of energy content and the amount of loading per unit of energy generated (kg/MWh). In the 8 mires in the Köyhäjoki basin, Central Ostrobothnia, taken as an example, the loading of suspended solids (SS) in the drainage ditch networks calculated on the basis of the typical values obtained here and existing mire and peat data and expressed per unit of energy generated varied between the mires and horizons in the range 0.9 16.5 kg/MWh. One of the aims of this work was to develop means of making better use of existing mire and peat data and the results of corings and other field investigations. In this respect combination of the typical loading values (kg/ha) obtained here for S, SC, CS and C peats and the various degrees of humification (H 2.5 8.5) with the above mire and peat data by means of a computer program for the acquisition and handling of such data would enable all the information currently available and that deposited in the system in the future to be used for defining watercourse loading estimates for mires and comparing them with the corresponding estimates of energy content. The intention behind this work has been to respond to the challenge facing the energy generation industry to find larger peat production areas that exert less loading on the environment and to that facing the environmental authorities to improve the means available for estimating watercourse loading from peat production and its environmental impacts in advance. The results conform well to the initial hypothesis and to the goals laid down for the research and should enable watercourse loading from existing and planned peat production to be evaluated better in the future and the resulting impacts to be taken into account when planning land use and energy generation. The advance loading information available in this way would be of value in the selection of individual peat production areas, the planning of their exploitation, the introduction of water protection measures and the planning of loading inspections, in order to achieve controlled peat production that pays due attention to environmental considerations.

Bioabsorbable materials for osteosynthesis and small joint arthroplasty in the hand

Fractures and arthritic joint destruction are common in the hand. A reliable and stable fracture fixation can be achieved by metal implants, which however, become unnecessary or even harmful after consolidation. The silicone implant arthroplasty is the current method of choice for reconstruction of metacarpophalangeal joints in rheumatoid patients. However, the outcome tends to worsen with long-term follow-up and implant-related complications become frequent. To address these problems, bioabsorbable implants were designed for the hand area. Aims of the studies were: 1) to evaluate the biomechanical stabilities provided by self- reinforced (SR) bioabsorbable implants in a transverse and an oblique osteotomy of small tubular bones and to compare them with those provided by metal implants; 2) to evaluate the SR poly-L/DL-lactide 70/30 plate for osteosynthesis in a proof-of-principle type of experiment in three cases of hand injuries; and 3) to evaluate the poly-L/D-lactide (PLA) 96/4 joint scaffold, a composite joint implant with a supplementary intramedullary Polyactive® stem and Swanson silicone implant in an experimental small joint arthroplasty model. Methods used were: 1) 112 fresh frozen human cadaver and 160 pig metacarpal bones osteotomised transversally or obliquely, respectively, and tested ex vivo in three point bending and in torsion; 2) three patient cases of complex hand injuries; and 3) the fifth metacarpophalangeal joints reconstructed in 18 skeletally-mature minipigs and studied radiologically and histologically. The initial fixation stabilities provided by bioabsorbable implants in the tubular bones of the hand were comparable with currently-employed metal fixation techniques, and were sufficient for fracture stabilisation in three preliminary cases in the hand. However, in torsion the stabilities provided by bioabsorbable implants were lower than that provided by metal counterparts. The bioabsorbable plate enhanced the bending stability for the bioabsorbable fixation construct. PLA 96/4 joint scaffolds demonstrated good biocompatibility and enabled fibrous tissue in-growth in situ. After scaffold degradation, a functional, stable pseudarthrosis with dense fibrous connective tissue was formed. However, the supplementary Polyactive® stem caused a deleterious tissue reaction and therefore the stem can not be applied to the composite joint implant. The bioabsorbable implants have potential for use in clinical hand surgery, but have to await validation in clinical patient series and controlled trials.

Planar Edgeless Detectors for the TOTEM Experiment at the LHC

The TOTEM experiment at the LHC will measure the total proton-proton cross-section with a precision better than 1%, elastic proton scattering over a wide range in momentum transfer -t= p^2 theta^2 up to 10 GeV^2 and diffractive dissociation, including single, double and central diffraction topologies. The total cross-section will be measured with the luminosity independent method that requires the simultaneous measurements of the total inelastic rate and the elastic proton scattering down to four-momentum transfers of a few 10^-3 GeV^2, corresponding to leading protons scattered in angles of microradians from the interaction point. This will be achieved using silicon microstrip detectors, which offer attractive properties such as good spatial resolution (<20 um), fast response (O(10ns)) to particles and radiation hardness up to 10^14 "n"/cm^2. This work reports about the development of an innovative structure at the detector edge reducing the conventional dead width of 0.5-1 mm to 50-60 um, compatible with the requirements of the experiment.