Water Management in Cambodia Resources and Relations

In Cambodia, water has a special purpose as a source of life and livelihoods. Along with agriculture, fishing and forest use, industry, hydropower, navigation and tourism compete for the water resources. When rights and responsibilities related to essential and movable water are unclear, conflicts emerge easily. Therefore, water management is needed in order to plan and control the use of water resources. The international context is characterized by the Mekong River that flows through six countries. All of the countries by the river have very different roles and interests already depending on their geographical location. At the same time, water is also a tool for cooperation and peace. Locally, the water resources and related livelihoods create base for well-being, for economical and human resources in particular. They in turn are essential for the local people to participate and defend their rights to water use. They also help to construct the resource base of the state administration. Cambodia is highly dependent on the Mekong River. However, Cambodia has a volatile history whose effects can be seen for example in population structure, once suspended public institutions and weakened trust in the society. Relatively stable conditions came to the country as late as in the 1990s, therefore Cambodia for example has a weak status within the Mekong countries. This Master s thesis forms international, national and local interest groups of water use and analyzes their power relations and resources to affect water management. The state is seen as the salient actor as it has the formal responsibility of the water resources and of the coordination between the actions of different levels. In terms of water use this study focuses on production, in management on planning and in power relations on the resources. Water resources of Cambodia are seen consisting of the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake and the time span of the study is between the years 1991 and 2006. The material consists of semi-structured interviews collected during summer 2006 in Finland and in Cambodia as well as of literature and earlier studies. The results of the study show that the central state has difficulties to coordinate the actions of different actors because of its resource deficit and internal conflicts. The lessons of history and the vested interests of the actors of the state make it difficult to plan and to strengthen legislation. It seems that the most needed resources at the central state level are intangible as at the village level instead, the tangible resources (fulfilling the basic needs) are primarily important. The local decision-making bodies, NGOs and private sector mainly require legislation and legitimacy to support their role. However, the civil society and the international supporters are active and there are possibilities for new cooperation networks. Keywords: Water management, resources, participation, Cambodia, Mekong

Veden ja järvisedimenttien laatu Vihtamonjoen valuma-alueella Sotkamossa

The study area, Vihtamonjoki catchment area, is 55 square kilometres and a third of it has been ditched. The largest ditchings have been done in years 1959-1970. The water system in the catchment area builds up of several lake basins, brooks and rivers. This study tries to discover the water quality at present. It also tries to determine the sedimentation rate and the changes on the sediment quality during the past decades. The water samples were collected in August 2003 and in March 2004 from several places in the catchment area. On March 2004 the sediment samples were collected from four lake basins. Organic matter, total phosphorus, iron, manganese, Fe/Mn-ratio, zinc and copper were determined from sediment samples. The water quality was determined by electric conductivity, alkalinity, pH, oxygen content and the content of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sulphate, chlorine and fluoride. Also the nutrients, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate, were determined. Chemical analyses and loss on ignition analyses showed clear changes in sediment quality in samples taken from 15-25 cm depth, thus showing the time of the ditching. In most cases the forest ditching had caused increase in mineral matter, iron, zinc and copper and decrease in total phosphorus and organic matter. Sedimentation rates vary between 4,1 to 6,7 mm/year in lakes after the forest ditching. Sedimentation rates have probably increased due to the forest ditching. The Fe/Mn-ratio shows that there has been a lack of oxygen in the lakes for some years after the forest ditching. The water quality proved to be normal in the Vihtamonjoki catchment area. Oxygen content in March 2004 pointed to the conclusion that there might be lack of oxygen in winter. Other analysis showed the water quality to be typical for the Kainuu area.

Jäätikön pinnanalaisten järvien hydrogeokemiallinen tutkimus läntisellä Kuningatar Maudin maalla, Etelämantereella

Tutkielma tarkastelee itäisellä Etelämantereella, läntisellä Kuningatar Maudin Maalla olevien jäätikön pinnanalaisten järvien (frozen lake) veden hydrogeokemiallisia ominaisuuksia. Keskeisin tutkimusalue on Vestfjellavuoristoketjun (73 74 °S, 13 16 °W) pohjoisimman vuoren, Basenin läheisyydessä sijaitseva jäätikön pinnanalainen järvi (Basen-järvi). Vertailevia tutkimuksia tehtiin lisäksi Plogenin ja Fossilryggenin nunatakkien läheisyydessä sekä Heimefrontfjellan vuoristoalueella. Tutkielma on Suomen Akatemian rahoittama grant # 54087 -hanke, ja siinä yhdistyvät Suomen tutkimusaseman, Aboan lähellä tehty geologinen, hydrogeologinen sekä glasiologinen tutkimus. Tutkimuksessa selvitetään Basenin jäätikön pinnanalaisen järven kemiallinen koostumus ja sen paikallinen ja ajallinen vaihtelu. Kemiallisen koostumuksen perusteella selvitetään myös ionien lähteet. Näytteenotto suoritettiin FINNARP 2003/04 Etelämanner-tutkimusretkellä. Basen -järveltä ja sen vieressä sijaitsevalta Basen -vuorelta kerättiin vesi-, suola-, kivi- ja moreeninäytteitä. Suola-, kivi- ja moreeninäytteillä selvitetään näytteissä silmillä havaittavan mineraalisaostuman koostumus. Kiinteän faasin kasvihuoneilmiö luo otolliset mahdollisuudet Basenin jäätikön pinnanalaisen järven synnylle ja kehitykselle. Basen -järven veden kemiallinen koostumus vaihtelee alueellisesti ja ajallisesti ja se on syntynyt kolmen komponentin yhteisvaikutuksesta: purovesien, nunatakilta sulavien lumien sekä sulaneen jään yhteisvaikutuksesta. Suurin vaikutus Basenin järven kemialliseen koostumukseen on kuitenkin Basenin rinteiltä virtaavilla purovesillä. Korkeimmat ionipitoisuudet havaittiin nunatakin reunan läheisyydessä. Basenin järven veden ionit ovat enimmäkseen ei-meriperäisiä. Runsain ioni on kalsium, jonka suurin lähde on jurakautisessa basaltissa esiintyvä mantelikarbonaatti. Basenin -järven vaiheista eteläisen talven aikana ei ole tietoa ja se, mitä talven aikana tapahtuu ja mikä saa veteen liuenneiden komponenttien pitoisuuden alenemaan, on vielä selvittämättä ja säilyy mahdollisena aiheena tulevaisuuden tutkimuksille.