K -shell diagram and hypersatellite spectra of 4d transition elements

The K-shell diagram (K alpha(1,2) and K beta(1,3)) and hypersatellite (HS) (K-h alpha(1,2)) spectra of Y, Zr, Mo, and Pd have been measured with high energy-resolution using photoexcitation by 90 keV synchrotron radiation. Comparison of the measured and ab initio calculated HS spectra demonstrates the importance of quantum electrodynamical (QED) effects for the HS spectra. Phenomenological fits of the measured spectra by Voigt functions yield accurate values for the shift of the HS from the diagram lines, the splitting of the HS lines, and their intensity ratio. Good agreement with theory was found for all quantities except for the intensity ratio, which is dominated by the intermediacy of the coupling of the angular momenta. The observed deviations imply that our current understanding of the variation of the coupling scheme from LS to jj across the periodic table may require some revision.

Modelling vacuum arcs : from plasma initiation to surface interactions

A better understanding of vacuum arcs is desirable in many of today's 'big science' projects including linear colliders, fusion devices, and satellite systems. For the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) design, radio-frequency (RF) breakdowns occurring in accelerating cavities influence efficiency optimisation and cost reduction issues. Studying vacuum arcs both theoretically as well as experimentally under well-defined and reproducible direct-current (DC) conditions is the first step towards exploring RF breakdowns. In this thesis, we have studied Cu DC vacuum arcs with a combination of experiments, a particle-in-cell (PIC) model of the arc plasma, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the subsequent surface damaging mechanism. We have also developed the 2D Arc-PIC code and the physics model incorporated in it, especially for the purpose of modelling the plasma initiation in vacuum arcs. Assuming the presence of a field emitter at the cathode initially, we have identified the conditions for plasma formation and have studied the transitions from field emission stage to a fully developed arc. The 'footing' of the plasma is the cathode spot that supplies the arc continuously with particles; the high-density core of the plasma is located above this cathode spot. Our results have shown that once an arc plasma is initiated, and as long as energy is available, the arc is self-maintaining due to the plasma sheath that ensures enhanced field emission and sputtering. The plasma model can already give an estimate on how the time-to-breakdown changes with the neutral evaporation rate, which is yet to be determined by atomistic simulations. Due to the non-linearity of the problem, we have also performed a code-to-code comparison. The reproducibility of plasma behaviour and time-to-breakdown with independent codes increased confidence in the results presented here. Our MD simulations identified high-flux, high-energy ion bombardment as a possible mechanism forming the early-stage surface damage in vacuum arcs. In this mechanism, sputtering occurs mostly in clusters, as a consequence of overlapping heat spikes. Different-sized experimental and simulated craters were found to be self-similar with a crater depth-to-width ratio of about 0.23 (sim) - 0.26 (exp). Experiments, which we carried out to investigate the energy dependence of DC breakdown properties, point at an intrinsic connection between DC and RF scaling laws and suggest the possibility of accumulative effects influencing the field enhancement factor.

Elliptic flow of thermal photons in heavy-ion collisions at Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider and Large Hadron Collider

We calculate the thermal photon transverse momentum spectra and elliptic flow in $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 200$ GeV Au+Au collisions at RHIC and in $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 2.76$ TeV Pb+Pb collisions at the LHC, using an ideal-hydrodynamical framework which is constrained by the measured hadron spectra at RHIC and LHC. The sensitivity of the results to the QCD-matter equation of state and to the photon emission rates is studied, and the photon $v_2$ is discussed in the light of the photonic $p_T$ spectrum measured by the PHENIX Collaboration. In particular, we make a prediction for the thermal photon $p_T$ spectra and elliptic flow for the current LHC Pb+Pb collisions.