Pyhä Kolminaisuus vai pilven reunalla istuva partasuu? : Jumalakuva evankelisluterilaisissa ja ortodoksissa 1.–4.-luokan uskonnon oppikirjoissa 1970–80- ja 2000-luvuilla

A concept of god is a wholeness that an individual experiences as God. The Christian concept of god is based on triune God: Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. The concept of god is examined in different kinds of contexts particularly between the 1940's and the 1970's. Many researches of school books have widely been made in Finland, but, however, only a few from the point of view of the concept of god. Considering this, the concept of god in the school books of Evangelical Lutheran and Orthodox religion from first to fourth grade in 1970–80 and 2000 is examined in this survey. Additionally, the concept of god in curricula between years 1970 and 2004 is studied. The perspective on the concept of god is the change in the course of time and denominational emphasis. As a first hypothesis, God the Father is represented in books in 21st century as a kind and loving figure. As a second hypothesis, the Trinity and the Holy Spirit get more space in Orthodox books comparing with the Lutheran books. Twelve school books of Evangelical Lutheran and Orthodox religion from first to fourth grade were used as a research material. The books were from four different series between the years 1978 and 2005. Teacher's guidebooks and student's exercise books were left outside of this survey. The research material was analyzed by using abductive content analysis and methodological triangulation. This study included both qualitative and quantitative aspects. The classification system which defined the classifying of concept of god from the research material was consisted of the basis of research material, former reseach, and subtext of used theories. The number of mentions in concept of god was higher in books from the 21st century. In Lutheran books, the change was seen as a growth of the category of God the Father. In Orthodox books, the trend was opposite: the category of Jesus the Son had grown. Differing from the presupposition, the features of loving God in new books had less emphasis than in older books in both churces. The mentions of the Holy Spirit and Trinity were marginal. In the Orthodox books, the categories were bigger, as it was presupposed. It could be seen, that the books confirmed the legalistic period of the concept of god on 3rd and 4th grades. The mentions of concept of god in curriculas have diminished and generalized. The diminution was seen most radically in the curriculum from the year 1994. The results tell something about social changes and views of innovation in curricula. In books the change was not perceived that bright. The idea of the concept of god getting shrank and decreased during the time can be refused.

Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography: Instrumental and Methodological Development

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) offers enhanced separation efficiency, reliability in qualitative and quantitative analysis, capability to detect low quantities, and information on the whole sample and its components. These features are essential in the analysis of complex samples, in which the number of compounds may be large or the analytes of interest are present at trace level. This study involved the development of instrumentation, data analysis programs and methodologies for GC×GC and their application in studies on qualitative and quantitative aspects of GC×GC analysis. Environmental samples were used as model samples. Instrumental development comprised the construction of three versions of a semi-rotating cryogenic modulator in which modulation was based on two-step cryogenic trapping with continuously flowing carbon dioxide as coolant. Two-step trapping was achieved by rotating the nozzle spraying the carbon dioxide with a motor. The fastest rotation and highest modulation frequency were achieved with a permanent magnetic motor, and modulation was most accurate when the motor was controlled with a microcontroller containing a quartz crystal. Heated wire resistors were unnecessary for the desorption step when liquid carbon dioxide was used as coolant. With use of the modulators developed in this study, the narrowest peaks were 75 ms at base. Three data analysis programs were developed allowing basic, comparison and identification operations. Basic operations enabled the visualisation of two-dimensional plots and the determination of retention times, peak heights and volumes. The overlaying feature in the comparison program allowed easy comparison of 2D plots. An automated identification procedure based on mass spectra and retention parameters allowed the qualitative analysis of data obtained by GC×GC and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. In the methodological development, sample preparation (extraction and clean-up) and GC×GC methods were developed for the analysis of atmospheric aerosol and sediment samples. Dynamic sonication assisted extraction was well suited for atmospheric aerosols collected on a filter. A clean-up procedure utilising normal phase liquid chromatography with ultra violet detection worked well in the removal of aliphatic hydrocarbons from a sediment extract. GC×GC with flame ionisation detection or quadrupole mass spectrometry provided good reliability in the qualitative analysis of target analytes. However, GC×GC with time-of-flight mass spectrometry was needed in the analysis of unknowns. The automated identification procedure that was developed was efficient in the analysis of large data files, but manual search and analyst knowledge are invaluable as well. Quantitative analysis was examined in terms of calibration procedures and the effect of matrix compounds on GC×GC separation. In addition to calibration in GC×GC with summed peak areas or peak volumes, simplified area calibration based on normal GC signal can be used to quantify compounds in samples analysed by GC×GC so long as certain qualitative and quantitative prerequisites are met. In a study of the effect of matrix compounds on GC×GC separation, it was shown that quality of the separation of PAHs is not significantly disturbed by the amount of matrix and quantitativeness suffers only slightly in the presence of matrix and when the amount of target compounds is low. The benefits of GC×GC in the analysis of complex samples easily overcome some minor drawbacks of the technique. The developed instrumentation and methodologies performed well for environmental samples, but they could also be applied for other complex samples.

Essays in Philosophical Moral Psychology

The dissertation consists of four essays and a comprehensive introduction that discusses the topics, methods, and most prominent theories of philosophical moral psychology. I distinguish three main questions: What are the essential features of moral thinking? What are the psychological conditions of moral responsibility? And finally, what are the consequences of empirical facts about human nature to normative ethics? Each of the three last articles focuses on one of these issues. The first essay and part of the introduction are dedicated to methodological questions, in particular the relationship between empirical (social) psychology and philosophy. I reject recent attempts to understand the nature of morality on the basis of empirical research. One characteristic feature of moral thinking is its practical clout: if we regard an action as morally wrong, we either refrain from doing it even against our desires and interests, or else feel shame or guilt. Moral views seem to have a conceptual connection to motivation and emotions – roughly speaking, we can’t conceive of someone genuinely disapproving an action, but nonetheless doing it without any inner motivational conflict or regret. This conceptual thesis in moral psychology is called (judgment) internalism. It implies, among other things, that psychopaths cannot make moral judgments to the extent that they are incapable of corresponding motivation and emotion, even if they might say largely the words we would expect. Is internalism true? Recently, there has been an explosion of interest in so-called experimental philosophy, which is a methodological view according to which claims about conceptual truths that appeal to our intuitions should be tested by way of surveys presented to ordinary language users. One experimental result is that the majority of people are willing to grant that psychopaths make moral judgments, which challenges internalism. In the first article, ‘The Rise and Fall of Experimental Philosophy’, I argue that these results pose no real threat to internalism, since experimental philosophy is based on a too simple conception of the relationship between language use and concepts. Only the reactions of competent users in pragmatically neutral and otherwise conducive circumstances yield evidence about conceptual truths, and such robust intuitions remain inaccessible to surveys for reasons of principle. The epistemology of folk concepts must still be based on Socratic dialogue and critical reflection, whose character and authority I discuss at the end of the paper. The internal connection between moral judgment and motivation led many metaethicists in the past century to believe along Humean lines that judgment itself consists in a pro-attitude rather than a belief. This expressivist view, as it is called these days, has far-reaching consequences in metaethics. In the second essay I argue that perhaps the most sophisticated form of contemporary expressivism, Allan Gibbard’s norm-expressivism, according to which moral judgments are decisions or contingency plans, is implausible from the perspective of the theory of action. In certain circumstances it is possible to think that something is morally required of one without deciding to do so. Morality is not a matter of the will. Instead, I sketch on the basis of Robert Brandom’s inferentialist semantics a weak form of judgment internalism, according to which the content of moral judgment is determined by a commitment to a particular kind of practical reasoning. The last two essays in the dissertation emphasize the role of mutual recognition in the development and maintenance of responsible and autonomous moral agency. I defend a compatibilist view of autonomy, according to which agents who are unable to recognize right and wrong or act accordingly are not responsible for their actions – it is not fair to praise or blame them, since they lacked the relevant capacity to do otherwise. Conversely, autonomy demands an ability to recognize reasons and act on them. But as a long tradition in German moral philosophy whose best-known contemporary representative is Axel Honneth has it, both being aware of reasons and acting on them requires also the right sort of higher-order attitudes toward the self. Without self-respect and self-confidence we remain at the mercy of external pressures, even if we have the necessary normative competence. These attitudes toward the self, in turn, are formed through mutual recognition – we value ourselves when those who we value value us. Thus, standing in the right sort of relations of recognition is indirectly necessary for autonomy and moral responsibility. Recognition and valuing are concretely manifest in actions and institutions, whose practices make possible participation on an equal footing. Seeing this opens the way for a kind of normative social criticism that is grounded in the value of freedom and automomy, but is not limited to defending negative rights. It thus offers a new way to bridge the gap between liberalism and communitarianism.

The brain serotonin transporter binding in young adults; methodological considerations and association with Bulimia Nervosa and acquired obesity

The neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) modulates many functions important for life, e.g., appetite and body temperature, and controls development of the neural system. Disturbed 5-HT function has been implicated in mood, anxiety and eating disorders. The serotonin transporter (SERT) controls the amount of effective 5-HT by removing it from the extracellular space. Radionuclide imaging methods single photon emission tomography (SPET) and positron emission tomography (PET) enable studies on the brain SERTs. This thesis concentrated on both methodological and clinical aspects of the brain SERT imaging using SPET. The first study compared the repeatability of automated and manual methods for definition of volumes of interest (VOIs) in SERT images. The second study investigated within-subject seasonal variation of SERT binding in healthy young adults in two brain regions, the midbrain and thalamus. The third study investigated the association of the midbrain and thalamic SERT binding with Bulimia Nervosa (BN) in female twins. The fourth study investigated the association of the midbrain and hypothalamic/thalamic SERT binding and body mass index (BMI) in monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs. Two radioligands for SERT imaging were used: [123I]ADAM (studies I-III) and [123I]nor-beta-CIT (study IV). Study subjects included young adult MZ and dizygotic (DZ) twins screened from the FinnTwin16 twin cohort (studies I-IV) and healthy young adult men recruited for study II. The first study validated the use of an automated brain template in the analyses of [123I]ADAM images and proved automated VOI definition more reproducible than manual VOI definition. The second study found no systematic within-subject variation in SERT binding between scans done in summer and winter in either of the investigated brain regions. The third study found similar SERT binding between BN women (including purging and non-purging probands), their unaffected female co-twins and other healthy women in both brain regions; in post hoc analyses, a subgroup of purging BN women had significantly higher SERT binding in the midbrain as compared to all healthy women. In the fourth study, MZ twin pairs were divided into twins with higher BMI and co-twins with lower BMI; twins with higher BMI were found to have higher SERT binding in the hypothalamus/thalamus than their leaner co-twins. Our results allow the following conclusions: 1) No systematic seasonal variation exists in the midbrain and thalamus between SERT binding in summer and winter. 2) In a population-based sample, BN does not associate with altered SERT status, but alterations are possible in purging BN women. 3) The higher SERT binding in MZ twins with higher BMIs as compared to their leaner co-twins suggests non-genetic association between acquired obesity and the brain 5-HT system, which may have implications on feeding behavior and satiety.

Verkkomedian käyttö ja tutkiminen : Iltalehti Online 1995-2001

Marja Heinonen s dissertation Verkkomedian käyttö ja tutkiminen. Iltalehti Online 1995-2001 describes the usage of new internet based news service Iltalehti Online during its first years of existence, 1995-2001. The study focuses on the content of the service and users attitudes towards the new media and its contents. Heinonen has also analyzed and described the research methods that can be used in the research of any new media phenomenon when there is no historical perspective to do the research. Heinonen has created a process model for the research of net medium, which is based on a multidimensional approach. She has chosen an iterative research method inspired by Sudweeks and Simoff s CEDA-methodology in which qualitative and quantitative methods take turns both creating results and new research questions. The dissertation discusses and describes the possibilities of combining several research methods in the study of online news media. On general level it discusses the methodological possibilities of researching a completely new media form when there is no historical perspective. The result of these discussions is in favour for the multidimensional methods. The empiric research was built around three cases of Iltalehti Online among its users: log analysis 1996-1999, interviews 1999 and clustering 2000-2001. Even though the results of different cases were somewhat conflicting here are the central results from the analysis of Iltalehti Online 1995-2001: - Reading was strongly determined by the gender. - The structure of Iltalehti Online guided the reading strongly. - People did not make a clear distinction in content between news and entertainment. - Users created new habits in their everyday life during the first years of using Iltalehti Online. These habits were categorized as follows: - break between everyday routines - established habit - new practice within the rhythm of the day - In the clustering of the users sports, culture and celebrities were the most distinguishing contents. Users did not move across these borders as much as within them. The dissertation gives contribution to the development of multidimensional research methods in the field of emerging phenomena in media field. It is also a unique description of a phase of development in media history through an unique research material. There is no such information (logs + demographics) available of any other Finnish online news media. Either from the first years or today.

Good Lives, Hidden Miseries : An Ethnography of Uncertainty in a Finnish Village

This is an ethnographic study, in the field of medical anthropology, of village life among farmers in southwest Finland. It is based on 12 months of field work conducted 2002-2003 in a coastal village. The study discusses how social and cultural change affects the life of farmers, how they experience it and how they act in order to deal with the it. Using social suffering as a methodological approach the study seeks to investigate how change is related to lived experiences, idioms of distress, and narratives. Its aim has been to draw a locally specific picture of what matters are at stake in the local moral world that these farmers inhabit, and how they emerge as creative actors within it. A central assumption made about change is that it is two-fold; both a constructive force which gives birth to something new, and also a process that brings about uncertainty regarding the future. Uncertainty is understood as an existential condition of human life that demands a response, both causing suffering and transforming it. The possibility for positive outcomes in the future enables one to understand this small suffering of everyday life both as a consequence of social change, which fragments and destroys, and as an answer to it - as something that is positively meaningful. Suffering is seen to engage individuals to ensure continuity, in spite of the odds, and to sustain hope regarding the future. When the fieldwork was initiated Finland had been a member of the European Union for seven years and farmers felt it had substantially impacted on their working conditions. They complained about the restrictions placed on their autonomy and that their knowledge was neither recognised, nor respected by the bureaucrats of the EU system. New regulations require them to work in a manner that is morally unacceptable to them and financial insecurity has become more prominent. All these changes indicate the potential loss of the home and of the ability to ensure continuity of the family farm. Although the study initially focused on getting a general picture of working conditions and the nature of farming life, during the course of the fieldwork there was repeated mention of a perceived high prevalence of cancer in the area. This cancer talk is replete with metaphors that reveal cultural meanings tied to the farming life and the core values of autonomy, endurance and permanence. It also forms the basis of a shared identity and a means of delivering a moral message about the fragmentation of the good life; the loss of control; and the invasion of the foreign. This thesis formed part of the research project Expressions of Suffering. Ethnographies of Illness Experiences in Contemporary Finnish Contexts funded by the Academy of Finland. It opens up a vital perspective on the multiplicity and variety of the experience of suffering and that it is particularly through the use of the ethnographic method that these experiences can be brought to light. Keywords: suffering, uncertainty, phenomenology, habitus, agency, cancer, farming

Balancing Social Citizenship and New Paternalism : Finnish activation policy and street-level practice in a comparative perspective

The study examines the origin and development of the Finnish activation policy since the mid-1990s by using the 2001 activation reform as a benchmark. The notion behind activation is to link work obligations to welfare benefits for the unemployed. The focus of the thesis is policy learning and the impact of ideas on the reform of the welfare state. The broader research interests of the thesis are summarized by two groups of questions. First, how was the Finnish activation policy developed and what specific form did it receive in the 2001 activation reform? Second, how does the Finnish activation policy compare to the welfare reforms in the EU and in the US? What kinds of ideas and instruments informed the Finnish policy? To what extent can we talk about a restructuring or transformation of the Nordic welfare policy? Theoretically, the thesis is embedded in the comparative welfare state research and the concepts used in the contemporary welfare state discourse. Activation policy is analysed against the backdrop of the theories about the welfare state, welfare state governance and citizenship. Activation policies are also analysed in the context of the overall modernization and individualization of lifestyles and its implications for the individual citizen. Further, the different perspectives of the policy analysis are applied to determine the role of implementation and street-level practice within the whole. Empirically, the policy design, its implementation and the experiences of the welfare staff and recipients in Finland are examined. The policy development, goals and instruments of the activation policies have followed astonishingly similar paths in the different welfare states and regimes over the last two decades. In Finland, the policy change has been manifested through several successive reforms that have been introduced since the mid-1990s. The 2001 activation reform the Act on Rehabilitative Work Experience illustrates the broader trend towards stricter work requirements and draws its inspiration from the ideas of new paternalism. The ideas, goals and instruments of the international activation trend are clearly visible in the reform. Similarly, the reform has implications for the traditional Nordic social policies, which incorporate institutionalised social rights and the provision of services.

Growing Flowers in the Frost: Civic Activity, Citizenship and Gender in Russia

This study analyzes civic activity, citizenship and their gendered manifestations in contemporary Russia. It is based on a case study conducted in the city of Tver , located in the vicinity of Moscow, during 2001-2005. The data consists of interviews with civic activists and municipal and regional authorities; observations of civic organizations; and a quantitative survey conducted among local civic groups. The theoretical and methodological framework of the study draws upon a micro perspective on organization, discourse analysis, gender and citizenship theories and Pierre Bourdieu s theory of fields and capital. This study develops theoretical understanding of the characteristics and logic of civic organization in Russia. It shows that social class centrally structures the field of civic activity. Organizations can be seen as a vehicle of the educated class to advocate their interests, help themselves and seek both social and individual-level change. The study also argues that civic organizations founded during the post-Soviet era are often an institutionalized form of informal social networks. Networks, which were a central element of everyday interaction in Soviet society, are a resource and often the only resource available that can be made use of in contemporary organizational activities. The study argues that gender operates as a key structuring principle in the Russian socio-political community. Civic activity is often discursively associated with femininity and institutional politics with masculinity. Women tend to participate more than men in civic organizations, while men dominate the formal political domain. The study shows that civic organizations are important loci of communality. This communality, however, differs from the communality envisioned in the communitarian and social capital debates in the West. It is selective communality , as it is restricted to the members of the organizations and does not create generalized reciprocity and trust. Civic organizations tend to build upon and reproduce the traditional Russian organizational form of circles , kruzhki. Along with the analysis of civic activities, the study also examines the redefinition of the role and functions of the state. The authorities interviewed in this study understand civic organizations as serving those goals and interests determined by the authorities, instead of viewing them as sites of citizens self-organization around interests and problems citizens themselves deem important, or as a counterforce to the state. By contrast, civic activists understand the core of organizational activity to be advocacy of their interests and rights, tackling social problems, the pursuit of wider social change and self-help. Co-operation between authorities and organizations tends to be personified and based upon unequal, hierarchical patron-client arrangements, which inhibits the development of democratic governance. The study will be published in Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series later this year.

Methodological perspectives for register-based health system performance assessment : Developing a hip fracture monitoring system in Finland

The resources of health systems are limited. There is a need for information concerning the performance of the health system for the purposes of decision-making. This study is about utilization of administrative registers in the context of health system performance evaluation. In order to address this issue, a multidisciplinary methodological framework for register-based data analysis is defined. Because the fixed structure of register-based data indirectly determines constraints on the theoretical constructs, it is essential to elaborate the whole analytic process with respect to the data. The fundamental methodological concepts and theories are synthesized into a data sensitive approach which helps to understand and overcome the problems that are likely to be encountered during a register-based data analyzing process. A pragmatically useful health system performance monitoring should produce valid information about the volume of the problems, about the use of services and about the effectiveness of provided services. A conceptual model for hip fracture performance assessment is constructed and the validity of Finnish registers as a data source for the purposes of performance assessment of hip fracture treatment is confirmed. Solutions to several pragmatic problems related to the development of a register-based hip fracture incidence surveillance system are proposed. The monitoring of effectiveness of treatment is shown to be possible in terms of care episodes. Finally, an example on the justification of a more detailed performance indicator to be used in the profiling of providers is given. In conclusion, it is possible to produce useful and valid information on health system performance by using Finnish register-based data. However, that seems to be far more complicated than is typically assumed. The perspectives given in this study introduce a necessary basis for further work and help in the routine implementation of a hip fracture monitoring system in Finland.

The EU and Institutional Twinning in Morocco - An inquiry into the motives of cooperation through discourse ethics

This study examines Institutional Twinning in Morocco as a case of EU cooperation through the pragmatic, ethical and moral logics of reason in Jürgen Habermas’s discourse ethics. As a former accession tool, Twinning was introduced in 2004 for legal approximation in the context of the European Neighborhood Policy. Twinning is a unique instrument in development cooperation from a legal perspective. With its long historical and cultural ties to Europe, Morocco presents an interesting case study of this new form of cooperation. We will analyse motives behind the Twinning projects on illegal immigration, environment legislation and customs reform. As Twinning is a new policy instrument within the ENP context, there is relatively little preceding research, which, in itself, constitutes a reason to inquire into the subject. While introducing useful categories, the approaches discussing “normative power Europe” do not offer methodological tools precise enough to analyse the motives of the Twinning cooperation from a broad ethical standpoint. Helene Sjursen as well as Esther Barbé and Elisabeth Johansson-Nogués have elaborated on Jürgen Habermas’ discourse ethics in determining the extent of altruism in the ENP in general. Situating the analysis in the process-oriented framework of Critical Theory, discourse ethics provides the methodological framework for our research. The case studies reveal that the context in which they operate affects the pragmatic, ethical and moral aspirations of the actors. The utilitarian notion of profit maximization is quite pronounced both in terms of the number of Twinning projects in the economic sphere and the pragmatic logics of reason instrumental to security and trade-related issues. The historical background as well internal processes, however, contribute to defining areas of mutual interest to the actors as well as the motives Morocco and the EU sometimes described as the external projection of internal values. Through its different aspects, Twinning cooperation portrays the functioning of the pragmatic, ethical and moral logics of reason in international relations.

Luottamus koulussa : Tutkimus yhdeksännen luokan oppilaiden luottamus- ja epäluottamuskertomuksista ja niiden merkityksestä oppilaiden kouluarjessa

The aim of this study is to explore trust at school and its meaning for 9th grade students. The intent is to investigate students views about trust and mistrust in school relationships. Three research questions are posed: 1) what meanings do students give to their experiences of trust and mistrust at school and how do they evaluate connection of these experiences to their well-being and enjoyment in the classroom? 2) what and how important, is the teacher s role according to the students writings, and 3) what might the different pedagogical and administrative structures of schools reveal about trust and mistrust in a particular school culture? The data consists of 134 writings of 9th grade students (secondary school) from three schools in one of the biggest cities in Finland. The schools differ from others in terms of their pedagogical or structural backgrounds. The study is restricted to the micro-level of, disposition of Educational Sociology, focusing on trust in schools relationships. The theoretical framework of the study is trust, as a part of social capital; however trust is also approached from the sociological, the psychological and philosophical perspective. The methodological approach is narrative research concerning school practice . Analysis of narrative consist mostly content analysis, but also some elements of holistic-content reading, thematic reading and categorical content. The analysis found three main themes: 1) individual stories of trust, 2) the teachers role in making trust possible in the classroom, and 3) school as a community of trust. According to the study trust at school (1) is a complex phenomenon consisting of people s ability to work together and to recognize the demands that different situations present. Trust at school is often taken for granted. In the students experiences trust is strongly connected to friendship, and the teacher s ability to connect with students. Students experiences of mistrust stem from bulling, school violence, lack of respect as well as teachers lacking basic professional behavior. School relationships are important for some students as source of enjoyment, but some feel that it is difficult to evaluate the connection between trust and enjoyment. The study found that students trust of teachers (2) is linked to the teacher s professional role as a teacher, a caring human being open to dialogue. In other words, the students describe teachers abilities to create a sense of trust in terms of three expectations: the teacher was better, the same or worse than expected. Better than expected, means the teacher engender a high degree of trust and has excellent communication skills. Same as expected means the teacher comes across as familiar and secure, while lower than expected means the teacher creates no trust and has poor communication skills. Finally, it was shown that trust at school (3) should not only exist between some individuals, but between (all) members of the school community. In other words, according to the study there is some evidence that trust is strongly committed to school culture. Further, trust seems to depend on (school-) cultural background, values, beliefs, expectations, norms as well as staff behaviour. The basic elements of an optimum level of trust at school are favourable school structure and pedagogical background; however, good relationships between teachers and students as well as high professional skills are also needed. Trust at school is built by good communication, working together and getting to know each other.