Polymorphic low penetrance genes and breast cancer : The role of genes involved in metabolism of xenobiotics, estrogens and reactive oxygen species

Various endogenous and exogenous factors have been reported to increase the risk of breast cancer. Many of those are related to prolonged lifetime exposure to estrogens. Furthermore, a positive family history of breast cancer and certain benign breast diseases are known to increase the risk of breast cancer. The role of lifestyle factors, such as use of alcohol and smoking has been an area of intensive study. Alcohol has been found to increase the risk of breast cancer, whereas the role of smoking has remained obscure. A multitude of enzymes are involved in the metabolism of estrogens and xenobiotics including the carcinogens found in tobacco smoke. Many of the metabolic enzymes exhibit genetic polymorphisms that can lead to inter-individual differences in their abilities to modify hazardous substrates. Therefore, in presence of a given chemical exposure, one subgroup of women may be more susceptible to breast carcinogenesis, since they carry unfavourable forms of the polymorphic genes involved in the metabolism of the chemical. In this work, polymorphic genes encoding for cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 and 1B1, N-acetyl transferase 2 (NAT2), sulfotransferase 1A1 (SULT1A1), manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and vitamin D receptor (VDR) were investigated in relation to breast cancer susceptibility in a Finnish population. CYP1A1, CYP1B1 and SULT1A1 are involved in the metabolism of both estrogens and xenobiotics, whereas NAT2 is involved only in the latter. MnSOD is an antioxidant enzyme protecting cells from oxidative damage. VDR, in turn, mediates the effects of the active form of vitamin D (1,25(OH)2D3, calcitriol) on maintenance of calcium homeostasis and it has anti-proliferative effects in many cancer cells. A 1.3-fold (95% CIs 1.01-1.73) increased risk of breast cancer was seen among women who carried the NAT2 slow acetylator genotype and a 1.5-fold (95% CI 1.1-2.0) risk was found in women with a MnSOD variant A allele containing genotypes compared to women with the NAT2 rapid acetylator genotype or to those with the MnSOD VV genotype, respectively. Instead, women with the VDR a allele containing genotypes were found to be at a decreased risk for breast cancer (OR 0.73; 95% CI 0.54-0.98) compared to women with the AA genotype. No significant overall associations were found between SULT1A1 or CYP genotypes and breast cancer risk, whereas a combination of the CYP1B1 432Val allele containing genotypes with the NAT2 slow acetylator genotypes posed a 1.5-fold (95% CI 1.03-2.24) increased risk. Moreover, NAT2 slow acetylator genotype was found to be confined to women with an advanced stage of breast cancer (stages III and IV). Further evidence for the association of xenobiotic metabolising genes with breast cancer risk was found when active smoking was taken into account. Women who smoked less than 10 cigarettes/day and carried at least one CYP1B1 432Val variant allele, were at 3.1-fold (95% CI 1.32-7.12) risk of breast cancer compared to women who smoked the same amount but did not carry the variant allele. Furthermore, the risk was significantly increased with increasing number of the CYP1B1 432Val alleles (p for trend 0.005). In addition, women who smoked less than 5 pack-years and carried the NAT2 slow acetylator genotype were at a 2.6-fold (95% CI 1.01-6.48) increased risk of breast cancer compared to women who smoked the same amount but carried the NAT2 rapid acetylator genotype. Furthermore, the combination of the CYP1B1 432Val allele and the NAT2 slow acetylator genotype increased the risk of breast cancer by 2.5-fold (95% CI 1.11-5.45) among ever smokers. Instead, the MnSOD A allele was found to be a risk factor among postmenopausal long-term smokers (>15 years of smoking) (OR 5.1; 95% CI 1.4-18.4) or among postmenopausal women who had smoked more than 10 cigarettes/day (OR 5.5; 95% CI 1.3-23.4) compared to women who had similar smoking habits but carried the MnSOD V/V genotype. Similarly, within subgroups of postmenopausal women who were using oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy or alcohol, women carrying the MnSOD A allele genotypes seemed to be at increased risk of breast cancer compared to women with the MnSOD V/V genotype. A positive family history of breast cancer and high parity were shown to be inversely associated with breast cancer risk among women carrying the VDR ApaI a allele or among premenopausal women carrying the SULT1A1*2 allele, respectively.

Substance flow analysis in Finland : Four case studies on N and P flows

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential elements for all living organisms. However, in excess, they contribute to several environmental problems such as aquatic and terrestrial eutrophication. Globally, human action has multiplied the volume of N and P cycling since the onset of industrialization. The multiplication is a result of intensified agriculture, increased energy consumption and population growth. Industrial ecology (IE) is a discipline, in which human interaction with the ecosystems is investigated using a systems analytical approach. The main idea behind IE is that industrial systems resemble ecosystems, and, like them, industrial systems can then be described using material, energy and information flows and stocks. Industrial systems are dependent on the resources provided by the biosphere, and these two cannot be separated from each other. When studying substance flows, the aims of the research from the viewpoint of IE can be, for instance, to elucidate the ways how the cycles of a certain substance could be more closed and how the flows of a certain substance could be decreased per unit of production (= dematerialization). In Finland, N and P are studied widely in different ecosystems and environmental emissions. A holistic picture comparing different societal systems is, however, lacking. In this thesis, flows of N and P were examined in Finland using substance flow analysis (SFA) in the following four subsystems: I) forest industry and use of wood fuels, II) food production and consumption, III) energy, and IV) municipal waste. A detailed analysis at the end of the 1990s was performed. Furthermore, historical development of the N and P flows was investigated in the energy system (III) and the municipal waste system (IV). The main research sources were official statistics, literature, monitoring data, and expert knowledge. The aim was to identify and quantify the main flows of N and P in Finland in the four subsystems studied. Furthermore, the aim was to elucidate whether the nutrient systems are cyclic or linear, and to identify how these systems could be more efficient in the use and cycling of N and P. A final aim was to discuss how this type of an analysis can be used to support decision-making on environmental problems and solutions. Of the four subsystems, the food production and consumption system and the energy system created the largest N flows in Finland. For the creation of P flows, the food production and consumption system (Paper II) was clearly the largest, followed by the forest industry and use of wood fuels and the energy system. The contribution of Finland to N and P flows on a global scale is low, but when compared on a per capita basis, we are one of the largest producers of these flows, with relatively high energy and meat consumption being the main reasons. Analysis revealed the openness of all four systems. The openness is due to the high degree of internationality of the Finnish markets, the large-scale use of synthetic fertilizers and energy resources and the low recycling rate of many waste fractions. Reduction in the use of fuels and synthetic fertilizers, reorganization of the structure of energy production, reduced human intake of nutrients and technological development are crucial in diminishing the N and P flows. To enhance nutrient recycling and replace inorganic fertilizers, recycling of such wastes as wood ash and sludge could be promoted. SFA is not usually sufficiently detailed to allow specific recommendations for decision-making to be made, but it does yield useful information about the relative magnitude of the flows and may reveal unexpected losses. Sustainable development is a widely accepted target for all human action. SFA is one method that can help to analyse how effective different efforts are in leading to a more sustainable society. SFA's strength is that it allows a holistic picture of different natural and societal systems to be drawn. Furthermore, when the environmental impact of a certain flow is known, the method can be used to prioritize environmental policy efforts.

Prevalence and determinants of respiratory symptoms, asthma, chronic bronchitis and allergic sensitization in Helsinki : A comparison between Finland, Sweden and Estonia. The FinEsS studies - Helsinki I

Objectives: To assess the prevalence and risk factor profiles of respiratory symptoms, asthma and chronic bronchitis in Helsinki, and to compare these results with those for Sweden and Estonia. Other important aims were to evaluate the prevalence and determinants of type 1 sensitization in Helsinki. Materials and methods: This presentation is a part of a large epidemiological study in Finland, Estonia and Sweden (FinEsS). The first part of the study consisted of a postal questionnaire in 1995-1996 distributed to subjects in eight study centres. The study population in each centre was a population-based random sample designed to be representative of the general population. The original study sample in Helsinki consisted of 8000 subjects aged 20-69 years, 6062 (76%) of whom participated. Comparisons between countries were based on a narrower age group, 20-64 years, since 64 years was the upper age limit used in the original study in Estonia. Thus, altogether 58 661 subjects aged 20-64 years were invited to participate in Finland, Sweden and Estonia, and 44 483 (76%) did so. The second part of the study was a clinical study with a structured interview, lung function measurements and skin-prick tests with 15 common allergens. This thesis reports only the results of the prick tests in Helsinki. Of the 1200 subjects invited to participate in Helsinki, 643 (54%) consented. Skin-prick tests were performed on subjects ≤ 60 years of age; thus, a total of 498 tests were done. Results: In Helsinki, the prevalence of physician-diagnosed asthma was 6.6% and of physician-diagnosed chronic bronchitis 3.7% among subjects aged 20-69 years. Comparison of the results between Finland, Sweden and Estonia in subjects 20-64 years of age revealed the highest prevalence of physician-diagnosed asthma in Sweden, 7.8%, while the prevalence in Finland was 5.9% and in Estonia 2.0% (p<0.001). The prevalence of physician-diagnosed asthma among those aged 20-29 years was 7.9% in Stockholm, 6.3% in Helsinki and 2.8% in Tallinn. Asthma-related symptoms were most common in Estonia, and among those with typical asthma symptoms the diagnosis of asthma was least likely in Estonia. Physician-diagnosed chronic bronchitis was reported to be 10.7% in Estonia, 3.1% in Sweden and 2.9% in Finland among subjects aged 20-64 years (p<0.001). Among those aged 20-29 years, 7.6% in Tallinn reported physician-diagnosed chronic bronchitis, while the prevalence estimates were 1.4% in Stockholm and 1.3% in Helsinki. The prevalence of smoking was similar for women in all three countries, around 30%, but large differences in smoking habits were present among men; 60% of Estonian, 39% of Finnish and 28% of Swedish men smoked. Skin-prick tests in Helsinki revealed a high prevalence of sensitization, 46.9%. For subjects aged 26-39 years, the prevalence was highest, 56.8%, and 23.7% were sensitized to at least four allergens. The most common sensitizing allergen was the dog. Sensitization to multiple allergens was associated with a high prevalence of asthma and allergic rhinitis. Conclusions: Compared with earlier Finnish studies, a higher prevalence of asthma and a lower prevalence of chronic bronchitis were found in Helsinki. The prevalence of physician-diagnosed chronic bronchitis was low in Helsinki, with only one-fifth of subjects fulfilling the symptom criteria for chronic bronchitis reporting having a diagnosis of chronic bronchitis. The prevalences of asthma and chronic bronchitis were similar in Finland and Sweden, but in Estonia physician-diagnosed asthma was less common and physician-diagnosed chronic bronchitis more common, particularly among young subjects. Further analyses revealed that the diagnosis of asthma was favoured in Finland and Sweden, while the diagnosis of chronic bronchitis was more likely in Estonia for subjects with the same symptoms. Allergic sensitization was common in Helsinki. Our findings of multiple sensitization also speak in favour of evaluating the degree of sensitization when assessing allergies.

Men´s health behaviour, health beliefs and need for health counselling : A study amongst 40-year-old males from one Helsinki City region

Tavoitteena oli tutkia 40-vuotiaiden miesten terveyskäyttäytymistä, terveysuskomuksia ja miesten saamaa terveysneuvontaa Helsingissä. 273 miestä vastasi kyselyyn ja osallistui terveystutkimuksiin. Terveydentilan perusteella miehet arvioitiin matalan (n=145) ja korkean (n=128) riskin ryhmiin. Khin neliö-testillä tutkittiin elämäntapa- ja riskitekijöitä koetun terveyden (hyvä, keskinkertainen/huono) luokissa ja verrattiin matalan ja korkean riskin ryhmiä em. tekijöiden osalta. Askeltavalla logistisella regressiomallilla analysoitiin tulosmuuttujia taustatekijöiden, terveyskäyttäytymisen, terveysuskomusten ja kliinisten riskitekijöiden avulla sekä arvioitiin oireiden ja vaivojen suhdetta koettuun terveydentilaan. Korkeassa riskissä olevien terveyttä seurattiin vuosina 2001–2004 analysoimalla mini-intervention vaikutusta terveysriskeihin ja elintapoihin varianssianalyysin avulla (ANOVA) (n=46). Matalasta vastausprosentista johtuen (39.6%), ei-vastanneiden aineistoa kerättiin käyttämällä syvähaastattelua (n=28) sekä puhelinkyselyä (n=40). Lopullinen aineisto koostui 341 miehestä. Tulokset osoittivat, että miehillä oli sydän- ja verisuonitautiriskejä. Kaksi kolmesta osallistuneista oli ylipainoisia tai lihavia, yli kolmanneksella vyötärönympärys oli ≥100 cm, ja yli 40%:llä oli diastolinen verenpaine ≥90 mmHg. Yli puolet tupakoi päivittäin ja 40% käytti alkoholia runsaasti. Ristiriitaisuutta ilmensi se, että huolimatta riskitekijöistä noin puolet miehistä koki terveydentilansa hyväksi. Sairauden tai vamman puute, hyvä suun terveydentila ja normaali vyötärönympärys olivat yhteydessä hyväksi koettuun terveydentilaan. Suora yhteys voitiin havaita omaisten tarjoaman neuvonnan ja vähäisen alkoholin käytön välillä. Masennus ja unettomuus olivat voimakkaasti yhteydessä loppuun palamiseen. Miehillä oli erilaisia fyysisiä ja psyykkisiä oireita, jotka korreloivat voimakkaasti masennuksen kanssa. Pieni määrä miehistä koki saaneensa terveysneuvontaa hoitohenkilökunnalta verrattuna perheenjäseniltä saatuun ohjaukseen. Korkeariskisten miesten (n=46) arvot parantuivat merkitsevästi lyhyellä aikavälillä. Kolesteroliarvoja lukuunottamatta ne palautuivat kolmen vuoden kuluttua alkumittausarvoja kohti. Laadullinen tutkimus osoitti, että “ei-vastanneet“ eivät osallistuneet projektiin, sillä he olivat oireettomia tai kiireisiä. Heillä todettiin samoja terveysriskejä kuin projektiin osallistuneilla. Syvähaastattelussa miehet toivat esille kokemuksiaan huolista, vihan tunteista, peloista ja yksinäisyydestä. Hoidonantajien on tärkeää ymmärtää ristiriidat miesten subjektiivisen ja objektiivisen terveydentilan välillä, mikä auttaa havaitsemaan esteitä terveyskäyttäytymiselle. Yhä enemmän tarvitaan yhteistyötä yksityisen ja julkisen terveydenhuollon välillä varmistamaan terveystottumusten jatkuminen miesten keskuudessa.

Leuconostoc spoilage of refrigerated, packaged foods

Leuconostoc spp. are lactic acid bacteria (LAB) implicated in food spoilage, especially on refrigerated, modified atmosphere packaged (MAP) meats. The overall aim of this thesis was to learn more about Leuconostoc spp. as food spoilage organisms with a focus on commercial products where LAB spoilage is considered a problem and the main factor limiting shelf-life. Therefore, we aimed to identify Leuconostoc spp. involved in food spoilage, as well as to characterise the spoilage reactions they caused and their contamination sources during poultry meat processing. In addition, we examined the distribution of strains of Leuconostoc gasicomitatum in different food commodities. Finally, we analysed the genome content of L. gasicomitatum LMG 18811 with a special focus on metabolic pathways related to food spoilage. The findings show that Leuconostoc gelidum and L.gasicomitatum were responsible for the discoloration and off-odours developed in beef steaks. Together with Leuconostoc mesenteroides, these Leuconostoc spp., also cause spoilage of vegetable sausages. In contrast, we showed that Leuconostoc spp. are not important for the shelf-life or quality of non-marinated broiler products although, in marinated broiler fillet products, Leuconostoc spp., L.gasicomitatum in particular, are considered spoilage organisms. Furthermore, the findings of the contamination survey we carried out in a poultry processing plant indicated that spoilage Leuconostoc spp. are derived from the processing environment rather than from the broilers, and that air movement distributes psychrotrophic spoilage LAB, including leuconostocs, and has an important role in meat contamination during poultry processing. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) based genotyping of L. gasicomitatum strains demonstrated that certain genotypes are common in various meat products. In contrast, genotypes associated with meat were not recovered in vegetable-based sources. This suggests that these two food categories either become contaminated with, or favour the growth of different genotypes. Furthermore, the results indicated that the meat processing environment contributes to L. gasicomitatum contamination as certain genotypes were repeatedly identified from products of the same processing plant. Finally, the sequenced and annotated genome of L.gasicomitatum LMG 18811 allowed us to identify the metabolic pathways and reactions resulting in food spoilage.

Lihaluujauhon soveltuvuus sokerijuurikkaan lannoitteeksi

Lihaluujauho muodostaa maatilojen myytävien kasvi- ja eläinperäisten tuotteiden jälkeen tärkeimmän agroekosysteemeistä poispäin suuntautuvan ravinnevirran. Se sisältää runsaasti pääkasvinravinteita typpeä, fosforia ja kalsiumia (N ~8%, P ~5%, Ca yleensä ~10-15% luuaineksen määrästä riippuen), sekä kaliumia n.1% tai alle. Lihaluujauho on todettu tehokkaaksi lannoitteeksi useilla viljelykasveilla ja sen käyttö on sallittu myös luomuviljelyssä EU-alueella. Lihaluujauhoon ja erityisesti sen rehukäyttöön liittyvistä riskeistä merkittävin on TSE-tautien riski (naudan BSE-, lampaiden ja vuohien scrapie-, sekä ihmisen vCJD-taudit). Rehukäyttöä on monissa maissa rajoitettu 1980-luvulla puhjenneen BSE-kriisin myötä. BSE-taudin leviäminen yhdistettiin tilanteeseen, jossa nautaperäistä lihaluujauhoa käytettiin nautaeläinten rehun ainesosana. Myös lihaluujauhon käytössä turkiseläinrehuna saattaa piillä BSE:n tai muun TSE-taudin riski. Oikein käsitellyn lihaluujauhon lannoitekäyttöön ei kuitenkaan näytä tarkastelemieni tutkimusten perusteella sisältyvän huomattavaa TSEriskiä, jos huolehditaan asianmukaisista varotoimista ja menettelyistä sekä tuotteen valmistusprosessissa, että käytettäessä lannoitetta. Lihaluujauhon lannoitekäytön lisääminen edistäisi ruokajärjestelmämme ravinnekierron sulkemista etenkin fosforin osalta. Lihaluujauho on uusiutuva luonnonvara, jonka lannoitekäytöllä voitaisiin korvata huomattava osa lannoiteaineena kulutettavista fosforipitoisista kiviaineista. Sokerijuurikkaan lannoituskokeissa Varsinais-Suomen Kaarinassa vuosina 2008 ja 2009 lihaluujauhokäsittelyt eivät menestyneet aivan yhtä hyvin satotasovertailussa kuin kontrollikäsittelyiden NPK-väkilannoitteet, mutta laatuominaisuuksiltaan (sokeripitoisuus, amino-N, K, ja Na-pitoisuudet) joiltakin osin kontrollikäsittelyjä paremmin. Kokeissa käytetyt lajikkeet olivat ’Jesper’ vuonna 2008 ja ’Lincoln’ vuonna 2009. Käytetty lihaluujauholannoite oli Honkajoki Oy:n Viljo Yleislannoite 8-4-3, joka sisälsi noin 10% kaliumsulfaatin ja kasviperäisten sivutuotteiden seosta. Viljo-lannoitetta käytettiin sekä yksistään, että yhdistettynä 10-25%:iin väkilannoitetta. Vuoden 2009 Viljo-koejäseniin vielä lisättiin kaliumsulfaattilannoitetta (42% K, 18% S), jotta päästiin annetun kaliumin määrässä päästiin lannoitussuosituksen (60 kg K/ha) tasolle. Pelkkä Viljo-lannoite tuotti merkitsevästi alhaisemmat sadot kuin kontrollikäsittelyt molempina vuosina. Kuitenkin kun Viljolannoitteen ohella käytettiin väkilannoitetta (10-25% kasvin typentarpeesta) päästiin varsin lähelle kontrollikäsittelyiden satotasoja. Myös pelkän LLJ-lannoitteen tuottamat satotasot olivat kuitenkin selvästi paremmat kuin Suomen keskimääräiset juurikassadot. Viljo-käsittelyillä oli selvästi positiivinen vaikutus laatutekijöihin amino-N, K ja Na vuonna 2008, mutta vuonna 2009 näiden pitoisuudet jäivät kontrollikäsittelyjen tasolle. Viljo-käsittelyiden sokeripitoisuudet olivat vuonna 2008 kontrollikäsittelyn luokkaa ja Viljo77%+NK1:n osalta kontrollia merkitsevästi paremmat. Vuoden 2009 sokeripitoisuudet olivat kaikilla koejäsenillä erinomaiset, ja käsittelyiden välillä ei ilmennyt merkitseviä eroja. Kokeiden perusteella kaliumsulfaatilla täydennetty lihaluujauho on hyvin toimiva lannoite sokerijuurikkaalla Suomen olosuhteissa, etenkin yhdistettynä väkilannoitteeseen.

Relationships in food chains: an empirical examination of trust, commitment and communication

This report derives from the EU funded research project “Key Factors Influencing Economic Relationships and Communication in European Food Chains” (FOODCOMM). The research consortium consisted of the following organisations: University of Bonn (UNI BONN), Department of Agricultural and Food Marketing Research (overall project co-ordination); Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe (IAMO), Department for Agricultural Markets, Marketing and World Agricultural Trade, Halle (Saale), Germany; University of Helsinki, Ruralia Institute Seinäjoki Unit, Finland; Scottish Agricultural College (SAC), Food Marketing Research Team - Land Economy Research Group, Edinburgh and Aberdeen; Ashtown Food Research Centre (AFRC), Teagasc, Food Marketing Unit, Dublin; Institute of Agricultural & Food Economics (IAFE), Department of Market Analysis and Food Processing, Warsaw and Government of Aragon, Center for Agro-Food Research and Technology (CITA), Zaragoza, Spain. The aim of the FOODCOMM project was to examine the role (prevalence, necessity and significance) of economic relationships in selected European food chains and to identify the economic, social and cultural factors which influence co-ordination within these chains. The research project considered meat and cereal commodities in six different European countries (Finland, Germany, Ireland, Poland, Spain, UK/Scotland) and was commissioned against a background of changing European food markets. The research project as a whole consisted of seven different work packages. This report presents the results of qualitative research conducted for work package 5 (WP5) in the pig meat and rye bread chains in Finland. Ruralia Institute would like to give special thanks for all the individuals and companies that kindly gave up their time to take part in the study. Their input has been invaluable to the project. The contribution of research assistant Sanna-Helena Rantala was significant in the data gathering. FOODCOMM project was coordinated by the University of Bonn, Department of Agricultural and Food Market Research. Special thanks especially to Professor Monika Hartmann for acting as the project leader of FOODCOMM.

Vitamin E may affect the life expectancy of men, depending on dietary vitamin C intake and smoking

Background: Antioxidants might protect against oxidative stress, which has been suggested as a cause of aging. Methods: The ATBC Study recruited males aged 50-69 years who smoked at least 5 cigarettes per day at the baseline. The current study was restricted to participants who were followed up past the age of 65. Deaths were identified in the National Death Registry (1445 deaths). We constructed Kaplan-Meier survival curves for all participants, and for four subgroups defined by dietary vitamin C intake and level of smoking. We also constructed Cox regression models allowing a different vitamin E effect for low and high age ranges. Results: Among all 10,837 participants, vitamin E had no effect on those who were 65 to 70 years old, but reduced mortality by 24% when participants were 71 or older. Among 2284 men with dietary vitamin C intakes above the median who smoked less than a pack of cigarettes per day, vitamin E extended life-span by two years at the upper limit of the follow-up age span. In this subgroup, the survival curves of vitamin E and no-vitamin E participants diverged at 71 years. In the other three subgroups covering 80% of the participants, vitamin E did not affect mortality. Conclusions: This is the first study to strongly indicate that protection against oxidative stress can increase the life expectancy of some initially healthy population groups. Nevertheless, the lack of effect in 80% of this male cohort shows that vitamin E is no panacea for extending life expectancy.

Key Factors Influencing Economic Relationships and Communication in Finnish Food Chains

The aim of this report is to discuss the role of the relationship type and communication in two Finnish food chains, namely the pig meat-to-sausage (pig meat chain) and the cereal-to-rye bread (rye chain) chains. Furthermore, the objective is to examine those factors influencing the choice of a relationship type and the sustainability of a business relationship. Altogether 1808 questionnaires were sent to producers, processors and retailers operating in these two chains of which 224 usable questionnaires were returned (the response rate being 12.4%). The great majority of the respondents (98.7%) were small businesses employing less than 50 people. Almost 70 per cent of the respondents were farmers. In both chains, formal contracts were stated to be the most important relationship type used with business partners. Although for many businesses written contracts are a common business practice, the essential role of the contracts was the security they provide regarding the demand/supply and quality issues. Relative to the choice of the relationship types, the main difference between the two chains emerged especially with the prevalence of spot markets and financial participation arrangements. The usage of spot markets was significantly more common in the rye chain when compared to the pig meat chain, while, on the other hand, financial participation arrangements were much more common among the businesses in the pig meat chain than in the rye chain. Furthermore, the analysis showed that most of the businesses in the pig meat chain claimed not to be free to choose the relationship type they use. Especially membership in a co-operative and practices of a business partner were mentioned as the reasons limiting this freedom of choice. The main business relations in both chains were described as having a long-term orientation and being based on formal written contracts. Typical for the main business relationships was also that they are not based on the existence of the key persons only; the relationship would remain even if the key people left the business. The quality of these relationships was satisfactory in both chains and across all the stakeholder groups, though the downstream processors and the retailers had a slightly more positive view on their main business partners than the farmers and the upstream processors. The businesses operating in the pig meat chain seemed also to be more dependent on their main business relations when compared to the businesses in the rye chain. Although the communication means were rather similar in both chains (the phone being the most important), there was some variation between the chains concerning the communication frequency necessary to maintain the relationship with the main business partner. In short, the businesses in the pig meat chain seemed to appreciate more frequent communication with their main business partners when compared to the businesses in the rye chain. Personal meetings with the main business partners were quite rare in both chains. All the respondent groups were, however, fairly satisfied with the communication frequency and information quality between them and the main business partner. The business cultures could be argued to be rather hegemonic among the businesses both in the pig meat and rye chains. Avoidance of uncertainty, appreciation of long-term orientation and independence were considered important factors in the business cultures. Furthermore, trust, commitment and satisfaction in business partners were thought to be essential elements of business operations in all the respondent groups. In order to investigate which factors have an effect on the choice of a relationship type, several hypotheses were tested by using binary and multinomial logit analyses. According to these analyses it could be argued that avoidance of uncertainty and risk has a certain effect on the relationship type chosen, i.e. the willingness to avoid uncertainty increases the probability to choose stable relationships, like repeated market transactions and formal written contracts, but not necessary those, which require high financial commitment (like financial participation arrangements). The probability of engaging in financial participation arrangements seemed to increase with long-term orientation. The hypotheses concerning the sustainability of the economic relations were tested by using structural equation model (SEM). In the model, five variables were found to have a positive and statistically significant impact on the sustainable economic relationship construct. Ordered relative to their importance, those factors are: (i) communication quality, (ii) personal bonds, (iii) equal power distribution, (iv) local embeddedness and (v) competition.

Ruokauskomukset Mosambikin maaseudun raskaana olevilla ja imettävillä naisilla

Ihmisille ympäri maailmaa on tyypillistä valita tiettyjä ruokia suuremmasta valikoimasta syömäkelpoista ruokaa ja luoda mieltymyksiä sekä kieltoja joitakin ruokia kohtaan. Näitä ilmiöitä kutsutaan ruokauskomuksiksi ja ne ovat tärkeä osa kulttuuria. Niiden taustalla on usein terveydelliset perustelut tai sosiaalinen arvostus yhteisössä. Afrikassa on todettu olevan paljon erilaisia ruokauskomuksia, jotka kohdistuvat usein raskaana oleviin ja imettäviin naisiin sekä lapsiin, ryhmään, joka on fysiologisesti erityisen herkässä elämänvaiheessa. Ravitsemustilan tai ruokaturvan ollessa heikko, mahdollisilla ruokauskomuksilla voi olla merkittävät seuraukset erityisesti tämän väestönosan terveydentilaan. Aliravitsemus ja virheravitsemus ovat edelleen suuria ongelmia Afrikassa ja muissa kehittyvissä maissa. Tämän työn tavoitteena oli tutkia laadullisin menetelmin, onko erityisesti raskaana olevilla ja imettävillä naisilla Keski-Mosambikin maaseudulla, Zambézian maakunnassa, ruokauskomuksia, mitä ne mahdollisesti ovat, sekä arvioida voiko ruokauskomuksilla olla ravitsemuksellista merkitystä. Menetelminä oli 5 ryhmähaastattelua kolmessa kylässä ja 10 yksilöhaastattelua kahdessa kylässä. Tutkittavat olivat 12–78-vuotiaita naisia ja heitä oli yhteensä 27. Tulkkaus, tutkimusaiheen sensitiivisyys ja haastattelijan kokemattomuus aiheuttivat haasteita haastatteluiden toteutukseen. Tämän vuoksi menetelmää muokattiin ja se vaihdettiin ryhmähaastattelusta yksilöhaastatteluun tutkimuksen aikana. Ruokauskomukset vaihtelivat sekä kylien välillä että kylien sisällä, joskin niistä löytyi samantyyppisiä pääpiirteitä. Työssä todettiin, että raskaana oleviin ja imettäviin naisiin kohdistui tutkimusalueella ruokauskomuksia. Raskauden aikana tuli välttää pääasiassa proteiinipitoisia ruokia, kuten lihaa ja kalaa ja puolestaan suosia kasvisten, hedelmien ja viljatuotteiden käyttöä. Linnun munien syöntiä sekä suositeltiin että kehotettiin välttämään raskauden aikana. Raskauden aikana ilmeni lisäksi tietoinen tapa vähentää kassavapuuron tai ruuan syömistä kokonaisuudessaan. Imetyksen aikana ei vältetty juuri mitään ruokia, vaan suositeltiin kookosta ja kasviksia. Suurin osa perusteluista liittyi äidin ja lapsen terveyteen. Perustelut voitiin jakaa seuraaviin ryhmiin: lisää äidinmaidon tuotantoa; aiheuttaa vatsakipua äidillä; pitää yllä kuntoa ja estää vatsan kasvua; äidistä tulee vahva, terve ja hän saa vitamiineja; lapsen ulkonäkö muuttuu; lapsesta tulee terve ja vahva; lapsen käyttäytyminen muuttuu; aiheuttaa keskenmenon; aiheuttaa vaikean tai helpon synnytyksen. Ruokauskomukset ja terveysviranomaisilta tullut valistus oli osittain sekoittunut keskenään. Lähes kaikki naiset kertoivat noudattavansa näitä ruokauskomuksia. Muutamat naiset kertoivat suositeltavien ruokien kohdalla, että ruokien saatavuus tekee noudattamisen joskus vaikeaksi. Proteiinipitoisten ruokien välttäminen voi lisätä proteiinialiravitsemuksen riskiä ja syömisen vähentäminen saattaa lisätä riskiä saada riittämättömästi energiaa raskauden aikana. Suositeltavat ruuat todennäköisesti edistävät terveyttä. Tutkielman perusteella voitiin todeta, että vieraassa kulttuurissa tutkiminen vaatii tutkimusmenetelmältä paljon. Tärkeää on menetelmän joustavuus, jotta sitä voi muuttaa tutkimuskentällä toimivampaan ja luotettavampaan muotoon. Johtopäätöksenä todettiin, että suositeltavin menetelmä tutkittaessa ruokauskomuksia tällä tutkimusalueella olisi ollut yksilöhaastattelut, jossa olisi ollut mahdollisimman vähän osallistujia ja osallistujat olisivat olleet samaa sukupuolta ja saman ikäisiä. Terveyden ja ravitsemuksen kannalta on tärkeää, että ruokauskomuksista ollaan tietoisia ja väestön ruokauskomuksia tutkitaan alueittain, koska ne voivat vaihdella merkittävästi jopa kylien tai ihmisryhmien sisällä.

Suomalaisen alkuperäiskarjan liha – kuluttajien osto- ja maksuhalukkuus

Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää suomalaisen alkuperäiskarjan lihan potentiaalista kysyntää. Alkuperäiskarjan lihan erikoistuotemarkkinat voivat auttaa pitämään uhanalaiset, kotimaiset karjarodut tuotantokäytössä. Näin ollen erikoistuotemarkkinat voivat auttaa arvokkaiden suomalaisten eläingeenivarojen säilyttämisessä. Koska alkuperäiskarjan lihan tuotannon kannattavuus riippuu lihasta saatavasta lisähinnasta, tutkimuksen tavoitteena on myös tutkia, millainen kuluttajien maksuhalukkuus alkuperäiskarjan lihasta on verrattuna tavanomaiseen lihaan. Tutkimusaineisto kerättiin Maa- ja elintarviketalouden tutkimuskeskuksen ja Kuluttajatutkimuskeskuksen suunnittelemalla kyselytutkimuksella keväällä 2010. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin ehdollisen käyttäytymisen ja ehdollisen arvottamisen menetelmiä ja sen otoskoko on 1623. Kuluttajien ostohalukkuutta ja siihen vaikuttavia tekijöitä tutkittiin sekä binäärisen että ordinaalisen regression malleilla. Kuluttajien maksuhalukkuutta alkuperäiskarjan lihasta ja siihen vaikuttavia tekijöitä tutkittiin grouped data -mallin avulla. Malleissa käytettiin selittävinä muuttujina sosioekonomisten muuttujien lisäksi kuluttajien asenteita ja käyttäytymistä kuvaavia muuttujia. Tutkielman tulosten mukaan jopa 86 % vastaajista ostaisi alkuperäiskarjan lihaa, jos sitä olisi tarjolla kaupoissa. Ostohalukkuutta lisää muun muassa, jos vastaajalla on alle 18-vuotiaita lapsia ja vastaaja arvostaa lähellä tuotettua, paikallista ruokaa sekä ympäristöystävällisyyttä. Miehet ostaisivat alkuperäiskarjan lihaa todennäköisemmin kuin naiset. Suurin osa vastaajista ostaisi alkuperäiskarjan lihaa, jos se olisi samanhintaista kuin tavanomainen liha, mutta noin neljäsosa (23,5 %) vastaajista olisi valmis maksamaan alkuperäiskarjan lihasta korkeampaa hintaa kuin tavanomaisesta lihasta. Maksuhalukkuuteen vaikuttivat positiivisesti muun muassa kuuluminen ympäristöjärjestöön ja korkea tulotaso. Negatiivisesti vaikutti puolestaan esimerkiksi se, että vastaaja on nainen. Keskimääräinen maksuhalukkuus alkuperäiskarjan lihasta oli 6,25 % korkeampi kuin tavanomaisesta lihasta. Maksuhalukkuus alkuperäiskarjan lihasta oli selvästi yhteydessä siihen, kuinka usein vastaaja olisi halukas ostamaan sitä. Maksuhalukkuus oli korkein niillä vastaajilla, jotka haluaisivat ostaa lihaa säännöllisesti.

Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli in Finnish poultry production

Campylobacter, mainly Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli, are worldwide recognized as a major cause of bacterial food-borne gastroenteritis. Epidemiological studies have shown handling or eating of poultry to be significant risk factors for human infections. Campylobacter contamination can occur at all stages of a poultry meat production cycle. The aim of this thesis was to study the occurrence and diversity of Campylobacter in broiler and turkey production in Finland. In summer 1999, 2.9 % of slaughtered broiler flocks were Campylobacter-positive. From the isolated strains 94 % were C. jejuni and 6% were C. coli. During years 2005-2006 one turkey parent flock, the hatchery, six different commercial turkey farms and different stages of the slaughterhouse were monitored during one and the half year. No Campylobacter were detected in either of the samples from the turkey parent flock or from the hatchery using the culture method. Instead PCR detected DNA of Campylobacter from the turkey parent flock and samples from the hatchery. Six out of 12 commercial turkey flocks were found negative at the farm level but only two of those were negative at slaughter. Campylobacter-positive samples within the flock at slaughter were detected between 0% and 94% with evisceration and chilling water being the most critical stages for contamination. All of Campylobacter isolates were shown to be C. jejuni. Campylobacter-positive turkey flocks were colonized by a limited number of Campylobacter genotypes both at the farm and slaughter level. In conclusion, in our first study in 1999 a low prevalence of Campylobacter in Finnish broiler flocks was detected and it has remained at a low level during the study period until the present. In the turkey meat production, we found that flocks which were negative at the farm became contaminated with Campylobacter at the slaughter process. These results suggest that proper and efficient cleaning and disinfection of slaughter and processing premises are needed to avoid cross-contamination. Prevention of colonization at the farm by a high level of biosecurity control and hygiene may be one of the most efficient ways to reduce the amount of Campylobacter-positive poultry meat in Finland. With a persistent low level of Campylobacter-positive flocks, it could be speculated that the use of logistic slaughtering, according to Campylobacter status at farm, might have be advantageous in reducing Campylobacter contamination of retail poultry products. However, the significance of the domestic poultry meat for human campylobacteriosis in Finland should be evaluated.

Campylobacter jejuni and C.coli in Finnish poultry production

Campylobacter, mainly Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli, are worldwide recognized as a major cause of bacterial food-borne gastroenteritis (World Health Organization 2010). Epidemiological studies have shown handling or eating of poultry to be significant risk factors for human infections. Campylobacter contamination can occur at all stages of a poultry meat production cycle. In summer 1999, every broiler flock from all three major Finnish poultry slaughterhouses was studied during a five month period. Caecal samples were taken in the slaughterhouses from five birds per flock. A total of 1 132 broiler flocks were tested and 33 (2.9%) of those were Campylobacter-positive. Thirty-one isolates were identified as C. jejuni and two isolates were C. coli. The isolates were serotyped for heat-stable antigens (HS) and genotyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The most common serotypes found were HS 6,7, 12 and 4-complex. Using a combination of SmaI and KpnI patterns, 18 different PFGE types were identified. Thirty-five Finnish C. jejuni strains with five SmaI/SacII PFGE types selected among human and chicken isolates from 1997 and 1998 were used for comparison of their PFGE patterns, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) patterns, HaeIII ribotypes, and HS serotypes. The discriminatory power of PFGE, AFLP and ribotyping with HaeIII were shown to be at the same level for this selected set of strains, and these methods assigned the strains into the same groups. The PFGE and AFLP patterns within a genotype were highly similar, indicating genetic relatedness. An HS serotype was distributed among different genotypes, and different serotypes were identified within one genotype. From one turkey parent flock, the hatchery, six different commercial turkey farms (together 12 flocks) and from 11 stages at the slaughterhouse a total of 456 samples were collected during one and the half year. For the detection of Campylobacter both conventional culture and a PCR method were used. No Campylobacter were detected in either of the samples from the turkey parent flock or from the hatchery samples using the culture method. Instead PCR detected DNA of Campylobacter in five faecal samples from the turkey parent flock and in one fluff and an eggshell sample. Six out of 12 commercial turkey flocks were found negative at the farm level but only two of those were negative at slaughter. Campylobacter-positive samples within the flock at slaughter were detected between 0% and 94%, with evisceration and chilling water being the most critical stages for contamination. All of a total of 121 Campylobacter isolates were shown to be C. jejuni using a multiplex PCR assay. PFGE analysis of all isolates with KpnI restriction enzyme resulted in 11 PFGE types (I-XI) and flaA-SVR typing yielded nine flaA-SVR alleles. Three Campylobacter-positive turkey flocks were colonized by a limited number of Campylobacter genotypes both at the farm and slaughter level.In conclusion, in our first study in 1999 a low prevalence of Campylobacter in Finnish broiler flocks was detected and it has remained at a low level during the study period until the present. In the turkey meat production, we found that flocks which were negative at the farm became contaminated with Campylobacter at the slaughter process. These results suggest that proper and efficient cleaning and disinfection of slaughter and processing premises are needed to avoid cross-contamination. Prevention of colonization at the farm by a high level of biosecurity control and hygiene may be one of the most efficient ways to reduce the amount of Campylobacter-positive poultry meat in Finland. In Finland, with a persistent low level of Campylobacter-positive flocks, it could be speculated that the use of logistic slaughtering, according to Campylobacter status at farm, might have be advantageous in reducing Campylobacter contamination of retail poultry products. However, the significance of the domestic poultry meat for human campylobacteriosis in Finland should be evaluated.

Contamination routes and control of Listeria monocytogenes in Food Production

Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of the severe foodborne infection listeriosis. The number of listeriosis cases in recent years has increased in many European countries, including Finland. Contamination of the pathogen needs to be minimized and growth to high numbers in foods prevented in order to reduce the incidence of human cases. The aim of this study was to evaluate contamination routes of L. monocytogenes in the food chain and to investigate methods for control of the pathogen in food processing. L. monocytogenes was commonly found in wild birds, the pig production chain and in pork production plants. It was found most frequently in birds feeding at landfill site, organic farms, tonsil samples, and sites associated with brining. L. monococytogenes in birds, farms, food processing plant or foods did not form distinct genetic groups, but populations overlapped. The majority of genotypes recovered from birds were also detected in foods, food processing environments and other animal species and birds may disseminate L. monocytogenes into food chain. Similar genotypes were found in different pigs on the same farm, as well as in pigs on farms and later in the slaughterhouse. L. monocytogenes contamination spreads at farm level and may be a contamination source into slaughterhouses and further into meat. Incoming raw pork in the processing plant was frequently contaminated with L. monocytogenes and genotypes in raw meat were also found in processing environment and in RTE products. Thus, raw material seems to be a considerable source of contamination into processing facilities. In the pork processing plant, the prevalence of L. monocytogenes increased in the brining area, showing that the brining was an important contamination site. Recovery of the inoculated L. monocytogenes strains showed that there were strain-specific differences in the ability to survive in lettuce and dry sausage. The ability of some L. monocytogenes strains to survive well in food production raises a challenge for industry, because these strains can be especially difficult to remove from the products and raises a need to use an appropriate hurdle concept to control most resistant strains. Control of L. monocytogenes can be implemented throughout the food chain. Farm-specific factors affected the prevalence of L. monocytogenes and good farm-level practices can therefore be utilized to reduce the prevalence of this pathogen on the farm and possibly further in the food chain. Well separated areas in a pork production plant had low prevalences of L. monocytogenes, thus showing that compartmentalization controls the pathogen in the processing line. The food processing plant, especially the brining area, should be subjected to disassembling, extensive cleaning and disinfection to eliminate persistent contamination by L. monocytogenes, and replacing brining with dry-salting should be considered. All of the evaluated washing solutions decreased the populations of L. monocytogenes on precut lettuce, but did not eliminate the pathogen. Thus, the safety of fresh-cut produce cannot rely on washing with disinfectants, and high-quality raw material and good manufacturing practices remain important. L. monocytogenes was detected in higher levels in sausages without the protective culture than in sausages with this protective strain, although numbers of L. monocytogenes by the end of the ripening decreased to the level of < 100 MPN/g in all sausages. Protective starter cultures provide an appealing hurdle in dry sausage processing and assist in the control of L. monocytogenes.

Afrikkalaisen sikaruton mahdollisia maahantuloreittejä

Afrikkalainen sikarutto on lakisääteisesti vastustettava helposti leviävä sikojen ja villisikojen virustauti, jolla on myös vakavia sosioekonomisia vaikutuksia. Akuutissa tautimuodossa eläimillä esiintyy syömättömyyttä, korkeaa kuumetta, verenpurkaumia iholla, veristä ulostetta sekä mahdollisesti ripulia. Kuolleisuus on lähes 100 % ja tauti johtaa kuolemaan 7-10 vrk tartunnan jälkeen. Tauti ei tartu ihmisiin. Tautia esiintyy sekä kesy- että villisioissa suurimmassa osassa Saharan eteläpuolista Afrikkaa ja Sardiniassa. Vuodesta 2007 lähtien tautia on esiintynyt Kaukasuksen alueella ja vuonna 2011 lähellä Suomen rajaa: Leningradin alueella ja Kuolan niemimaalla. Tässä riskiprofiilissa kartoitetaan reitit ja tapahtumasarjat, jotka voivat johtaa siihen, että afrikkalainen sikarutto tulee Suomeen ensimmäisen kerran. Näistä oleellisimmat ovat: maahantulo infektioalueella matkustaneiden ihmisten mukana, infektoituneen lihan tai lihatuotteen mukana, elävien kesysikojen ja sperman mukana, kontaminoituneiden eläinkuljetusajoneuvojen mukana, kansainvälisen liikenteen ruokajätteen mukana ja Suomeen vaeltavan infektoituneen villisian mukana. Tilatason tautisuojaus sekä tehokas ja kohdennettu tiedottaminen taudin vaaroista ovat avainasemassa, kun halutaan suojata Suomen sikaelinkeinoa afrikkalaiselta sikarutolta.