Improving interfaces for nerve repair

Autologous nerve grafts are the current gold standard for the repair of peripheral nerve injuries. However, there is a need to develop an alternative to this technique, as donor-site morbidities such as neuroma formation and permanent loss of function are a few of the limitations concerned with this technique. Artificial nerve conduits have therefore emerged as an alternative for the repair of short peripheral nerve defects of less than 30 mm, however they do not surpass autologous nerve grafts clinically. To develop a nerve conduit that supports regeneration over long nerve gaps and in large diameter nerves, researchers have focused on functionalizing of the conduits by studying the components that enhance nerve regeneration such as micro/nano-topography, growth factor delivery systems, supportive cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins as well as understanding the complex biological reactions that take place during peripheral nerve regeneration. This thesis presents strategies to improve peripheral nerve interfaces to better the regenerative potential by using dorsal root ganglions (DRGs) isolated from neonatal rats as an in vitro model of nerve regeneration. The work started off by investigating the usefulness of a frog foam protein Ranaspumin-2 (Rsn2) to coat biomaterials for compatibility, this lead to the discovery of temporary cell adhesion on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which was investigated as a suitable tool to derive cell-sheets for nerve repair. The influence of Rsn2 anchored to specific adhesion peptide sequences, such as isoleucine-lysine-valine-alanine-valine (IKVAV), a sequence derived from laminin proven to promote cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth, was tested as a useful means to influence nerve regeneration. This approach improves the axonal outgrowth and maintains outgrowth long term. Based on the hypothesis that combinational modulation of substrate topography, stiffness and neurotrophic support, affects axonal outgrowth in whole DRGs, dissociated DRGs were used to assess if these factors similarly act at the single cell level. Rho associated protein kinase (ROCK) and myosin II inhibitors, which affect cytoskeletal contractility, were used to influence growth cone traction forces and have shown that these factors work in combination by interfering with growth cone dynamic creating a different response in axonal outgrowth at the single cell level.

Studies on the synthesis of novel PP2A inhibitors and a GPCR detergent

Chapter 1 While targeting kinases in oncology research has been explored extensively, targeting protein phosphatases is currently in its infancy. However, a number of pharmaceutical companies are currently looking to expand their research efforts in this area. PP2A has been shown to down-regulate ERK5, a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) that has been shown to be important in driving the invasive phenotype of prostate cancer. Fostriecin and its related structural analogues PD 113,270 and 113,271 have been shown to inhibit a mitotic entry checkpoint in cell growth through the potent and selective inhibition of protein phosphatases PP1, PP2A, and PP4 (IC50 of 45 μM, 1.5 nM, and 3 nM respectively). Fostriecin is one of the most selective protein phosphatase inhibitors disclosed to date with a 104 fold selectivity for PP2A/PP4 versus PP1. Unfortunately, fostriecin and its analogues are very unstable, and this instability has effectively prevented them from being used as effective therapeutic leads. The microcystins and nodularins on the other hand, exhibit significant inhibitory activity against PP1 and PP2A (IC50 = 26 pM and 1.8 nM respectively), but their high toxicity has prevented any therapeutic application. Truncation of the ADDA chain from these polypeptides completely attenuates PP inhibitory activity. Simpler analogues incorporating the N-acylated ADDA chain and D-Ala retain moderate activity against PP1 and PP2A (IC50 = 1.0 μM and 0.17 μM respectively). The generation of a new series of fostriecin analogues to further expand its structure-activity relationship is envisaged with a view to creating new more stable PP2A inhibitors. It was hoped that by incorporating some of the more stable structural features of ADDA into fostriecin that stability and activity could be reconciled. With that in mind a series of PP2A inhibitors were synthesised and biologically evaluated. Chapter 2 GPCRs are an important area of research and are the targets of a quarter of the drugs on the market (2005). As a result, GPCRs continue to be at the forefront of research in both small and large drug companies. However one of the difficulties in studying this diverse class of membrane proteins is their tendency to denature in aqueous solution. As a result there is a pressing need to develop new detergents to solubilise, stabilise and crystallise GPCRs in their native form for further study. Cholesterol analogues have been shown to be important for stabilising membrane proteins and preventing their thermal inactivation. In addition the β2-adrenergic receptor, a GPCR membrane protein, has been crystallised in the active state with two cholesterol molecules bound between the I, II, III and IV helices of the protein. This appears to represent a distinct cholesterol binding pocket on the membrane protein that is speculated to be conserved across up to 44% of the rhodopsin class of GPCRs. CHOBIMALT is a cholesterol-based detergent that has been shown to exhibit promising GPCR-stabilising properties. When benchmarked against other cholesterol based detergents it was found to be superior to all others tested except for cholesteryl hemisuccinate.1 CHOBIMALT has an aggregation number of roughly 200 and forms 210 ± 30 kDa micelles, which are significantly larger than those of most detergents used for biological systems which is likely due to the packing constraints associated with CHOBMALT’s large polar headgroup.2 As a result, CHOBIMALT is used mostly as an additive to other commercially available detergents in order to decrease micelle size. A branched dimaltoside motif is common in recently synthesised detergents by Chae and co-workers. These detergents have shown promising detergent properties, for example the maltose neopentyl glycol (MNG) detergent synthesised by Chae. This branched dimaltoside detergent was shown to be able to solubilise and stabilise the very labile light harvesting complex I (LHI) from Rhodopsin capsulatus in its active form for 20 days with little loss of protein conformation.3 A cholesterol-based detergent was envisaged that combines the cholesterol framework of CHOBIMALT but replaces its linear tetrasaccharide with a branched dimaltoside. This detergent would then be investigated to assess its ability to solubilise, stabilise and crystallise GPCR proteins. This cholesterol-based detergent (shown below) was eventually synthesised in 9 linear steps from cholesterol.

Macrophages and CD4 T-cells in rheumatoid arthritis and their modulation by JAK inhibitors

Background: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory arthritis that causes significant morbidity and mortality and has no cure. Although early treatment strategies and biologic therapies such as TNFα blocking antibodies have revolutionised treatment, there still remains considerable unmet need. JAK kinase inhibitors, which target multiple inflammatory cytokines, have shown efficacy in treating RA although their exact mechanism of action remains to be determined. Stratified medicine promises to deliver the right drug to the right patient at the right time by using predictive ‘omic biomarkers discovered using bioinformatic and “Big Data” techniques. Therefore, knowledge across the realms of clinical rheumatology, applied immunology, bioinformatics and data science is required to realise this goal. Aim: To use bioinformatic tools to analyse the transcriptome of CD14 macrophages derived from patients with inflammatory arthritis and define a JAK/STAT signature. Thereafter to investigate the role of JAK inhibition on inflammatory cytokine production in a macrophage cell contact activation assay. Finally, to investigate JAK inhibition, following RA synovial fluid stimulation of monocytes. Methods and Results: Using bioinformatic software such as limma from the Bioconductor repository, I determined that there was a JAK/STAT signature in synovial CD14 macrophages from patients with RA and this differed from psoriatic arthritis samples. JAK inhibition using a JAK1/3 inhibitor tofacitinib reduced TNFα production when macrophages were cell contact activated by cytokine stimulated CD4 T-cells. Other pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and chemokines such as IP-10 were also reduced. RA synovial fluid failed to stimulate monocytes to phosphorylate STAT1, 3 or 6 but CD4 T-cells activated STAT3 with this stimulus. RNA sequencing of synovial fluid stimulated CD4 T-cells showed an upregulation of SOCS3, BCL6 and SBNO2, a gene associated with RA but with unknown function and tofacitinib reversed this. Conclusion: These studies demonstrate that tofacitinib is effective at reducing inflammatory mediator production in a macrophage cell contact assay and also affects soluble factor mediated stimulation of CD4 T-cells. This suggests that the effectiveness of JAK inhibition is due to inhibition of multiple cytokine pathways such as IL-6, IL-15 and interferon. RNA sequencing is a useful tool to identify non-coding RNA transcripts that are associated with synovial fluid stimulation and JAK inhibition but these require further validation. SBNO2, a gene that is associated with RA, may be biomarker of tofacitinib treatment but requires further investigation and validation in wider disease cohorts.